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Eggplant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Eggplant (disambiguation).
Eggplant
Solanum melongena 24 08 2012 (1).JPG
Scientific classification
Kingdom
lantae
(unranked):Angiosperms
(unranked):Eudicots
(unranked):Asterids
Order:Solanales
Family:Solanaceae
Genus:Solanum
Species:S. melongena
Binomial name
Solanum melongena
L.
Synonyms
Solanum ovigerum Dunal
Solanum trongum Poir.
and see text
Eggplant (Solanum melongena), or aubergine, is a species of nightshade grown for its edible fruit. Eggplant is the common name in North America and Australia, but British English uses aubergine.[1] It is known in South Asia, Southeast Asia and South Africa as brinjal.[2] Other common names are melongene, garden egg or guinea squash.
The fruit is widely used in cooking. As a member of the genus Solanum, it is related to the tomato and the potato. It was originally domesticated from the wild nightshade species, the thorn or bitter apple, S. incanum,[3][4][5] probably with two independent domestications, one in South Asia and one in East Asia.[6]
Contents
1Description
2History
3Etymology and regional names
4Cultivated varieties
4.1Varieties
4.1.1Genetically engineered aubergine
5Cooking and preparing
6Cultivation and pests
6.1Production
7Nutrition
8Chemistry
9Allergies
10Taxonomy
11Gallery
12See also
13References
14External links
Description[edit]
The eggplant is a delicate, tropical perennial often cultivated as a tender or half-hardy annual in temperate climates. The stem is often spiny. The flower is white to purple, with a five-lobed corolla and yellow stamens. The egg-shaped glossy purple fruit has white flesh with a meaty texture. The cut surface of the flesh rapidly turns brown when the fruit is cut open.
It grows 40 to 150 cm (1.3 to 4.9 ft) tall, with large, coarsely lobed leaves that are 10 to 20 cm (3.9 to 7.9 in) long and 5 to 10 cm (2.0 to 3.9 in) broad. Semi-wild types can grow much larger, to 225 cm (7.38 ft) with large leaves over 30 cm (12 in) long and 15 cm (5.9 in) broad. On wild plants, the fruit is less than 3 cm (1.2 in) in diameter, but much larger in cultivated forms: 30 cm (12 in) or more in length.
Botanically classified as a berry, the fruit contains numerous small, soft seeds that, though edible, taste bitter because they contain nicotinoid alkaloids like the related tobacco.
History[edit]
The plant species originated in cultivation. It has been cultivated in southern and eastern Asia since prehistory. The first known written record of the plant is found in Qimin Yaoshu , an ancient Chinese agricultural treatise completed in 544.[7] The numerous Arabic and North African names for it, along with the lack of the ancient Greek and Roman names, indicate it was introduced throughout the Mediterranean area by the Arabs in the early Middle Ages. A book on agriculture by Ibn Al-Awwam in 12th century Arabic Spain described how to grow aubergines.[8] There are records from later medieval Catalan and Spanish.[9]
The aubergine is unrecorded in England until the 16th century. An English botany book in 1597 stated:
This plant groweth in Egypt almost everywhere... bringing forth fruit of the bigness of a great cucumber.... We have had the same in our London gardens, where it hath borne flowers, but the winter approaching before the time of ripening, it perished: nothwithstanding it came to bear fruit of the bigness of a goose egg one extraordinary temperate year... but never to the full ripeness.[10]
Because of the plant's relationship with other nightshades, the fruit was at one time believed to be extremely poisonous. The flowers and leaves can be poisonous if consumed in large quantities due to the presence of solanine.[11]
The eggplant has a special place in folklore. In 13th century Italian traditional folklore, the eggplant can cause insanity.[12] In 19th century Egypt, it was said that insanity was "more common and more violent" when the eggplant is in season in the summer.[13]
Etymology and regional names[edit]
Closeup of an eggplant flower of a long-fruited Chinese variety in Hong Kong
The plant and fruit have a profusion of English names: eggplant (North America, Australia), aubergine (Britain), brinjal (South Asia, South Africa, Malaysia, Singapore, terong (Indonesia), and West Indies, Trinidad), melongene (Caribbean), and formerly melongena and mad-apple.
The word "eggplant" was first recorded in 1767, and was originally applied to white varieties;[14] some 18th-century European cultivars were small, round, yellow or white, resembling goose or hen's eggs. The other names, even mad-apple, all ultimately derive from a Dravidian word with reflexes in modern Malayalam va?utina and Tamil va?utu?ai, transmitted through Sanskrit v?tigama, Prakrit v?i?a?a, Persian ??????? b?ding?n, and Arabic b??inj?n ???????.[15]
The Anglo-Indian name "brinjal" or brinjaul comes from the Portuguese bringella, bringiela, or beringela,[15] whereas the name baingan or baigan, also sometimes used in English in South Asia as well as in Trinidad, appears to be re-borrowed from the Sanskrit or Persian name.[16]
Eggplant with chicken eggs
The Arabic name is the common source of all the European names for this plant, but through two distinct paths of transmission, with the melongene family coming through the eastern Mediterranean, and the aubergine family through the western Mediterranean. In the western Mediterranean, the Arabic (al)-b??inj?n was borrowed as Spanish alberengena and berenjena, Catalan albergínia, and Portuguese beringela, whence the modern French aubergine (and the earlier albergine, albergaine, albergame, belingèle), the source of the British English aubergine.[15]
“...probably there is no word of the kind which has undergone such extraordinary variety of modifications, whilst retaining the same meaning, as this...”
— Hobson-Jobson (1886)[16]
In the eastern Mediterranean, b??inj?n was borrowed into Byzantine Greek first as ??????????, then modified to ????????? melitzána and melanzana, influenced by Greek ??????- 'black'. This came into Italian as melongiana and melanzana, and into Medieval Latin as melongena. The Latin name was later used by Tournefort as a genus name, then by Linnaeus as a species name. These forms came into English; though melongene has become obsolete, as have the French merangène, melongène/melanjan, it persists in the Caribbean English melongene or meloongen.[17] In Italian, melanzana was interpreted as mela insana 'crazy apple'; this was translated into English as mad apple.[12]
Cultivated varieties[edit]
Three varieties of eggplant
Different varieties of the plant produce fruit of different size, shape, and color, though typically purple. The most widely cultivated varieties—cultivars—in Europe and North America today are elongated ovoid, 12–25 cm long (?4 1?2 to 9 in) and 6–9 cm broad (2 to 4 in) with a dark purple skin.[citation needed]
A much wider range of shapes, sizes and colors is grown in India and elsewhere in Asia. Larger varieties weighing up to a kilogram (2.2 pounds) grow in the region between the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, while smaller varieties are found elsewhere. Colors vary from white to yellow or green, as well as reddish-purple and dark purple. Some cultivars have a color gradient—white at the stem; to bright pink, deep purple or even black. Green or purple cultivars with white striping also exist. Chinese varieties are commonly shaped like a narrower, slightly pendulous cucumber, and are sometimes miscalled Japanese aubergines in North America. But there are also Asian varieties of Japanese breeding.
Oval or elongated oval-shaped and black-skinned cultivars include 'Harris Special Hibush', 'Burpee Hybrid', 'Bringal Bloom', 'Black Magic', 'Classic', 'Dusky', and 'Black Beauty'.
Slim cultivars in purple-black skin include 'Little Fingers', 'Ichiban', 'Pingtung Long', and 'Tycoon'
In green skin, 'Louisiana Long Green' and 'Thai (Long) Green'
In white skin, 'Dourga'.
Traditional, white-skinned, egg-shaped cultivars include 'Casper' and 'Easter Egg'.
Bi-colored cultivars with color gradient include 'Rosa Bianca', 'Violetta di Firenze', 'Bianca Sfumata di Rosa' (heirloom), and 'Prosperosa' (heirloom).
Bi-colored cultivars with striping include 'Listada de Gandia' and 'Udumalapet'.
In some parts of India, miniature varieties, most commonly called vengan, are popular.
Varieties[edit]
Solanum melongena var. esculentum common aubergine, including white varieties, with many cultivars[18]
Solanum melongena var. depressum dwarf aubergine
Solanum melongena var. serpentium snake aubergine
Genetically engineered aubergine[edit]
Bt brinjal is a transgenic aubergine that contains a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis.[19] This variety was designed to give the plant resistance to lepidopteran insects like the brinjal fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis) and fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera).[19][20]
On 9 February 2010, the Environment Ministry of India imposed a moratorium on the cultivation of Bt brinjal after protests against regulatory approval of cultivated Bt brinjal in 2009, stating the moratorium would last "for as long as it is needed to establish public trust and confidence".[19] This decision was deemed controversial, as it deviated from previous practices with other genetically modified crops in India.[21] Bt brinjal was approved for commercial cultivation in Bangaladesh in 2013.[22]
Cooking and preparing[edit]
Melanzane alla Parmigiana, "eggplant parmesan"
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eggplant-based food.
The raw fruit can have a somewhat bitter taste, or even an astringent quality, but becomes tender when cooked and develops a rich, complex flavor. The fruit is capable of absorbing large amounts of cooking fats and sauces, making for very rich dishes, but salting reduces the amount of oil absorbed. Many recipes advise salting, rinsing and draining the sliced fruit (a process known as "degorging") to soften it and to reduce the amount of fat absorbed during cooking, but mainly to remove the bitterness of the earlier cultivars. Some modern varieties—including large purple varieties commonly imported into western Europe—do not need this treatment.
Eggplant is used in the cuisines of many countries. Eggplant, due to its texture and bulk, is sometimes used as a meat substitute in vegan and vegetarian cuisine.[23] The fruit flesh is smooth, as in the related tomato. The numerous seeds are soft and edible along with the rest of the fruit. The thin skin is also edible.
Eggplant is widely used in its native India, for example in sambhar (a tamarind lentil stew), dalma (a dal preparation with vegetables, native to Odisha), chutney, curry, and achaar (a pickled dish). Owing to its versatile nature and wide use in both everyday and festive Indian food, it is often described (under the name "baingan" or "brinjal") as the "king of vegetables". Roasted, skinned, mashed, mixed with onions, tomatoes and spices and then slow cooked gives the South Asian dish baingan bharta or gojju, similar to salat? de vinete in Romania. Another version of the dish, begun-pora (eggplant charred or burnt), is very popular in Bangladesh and the east Indian states of Odisha and West Bengal where the pulp of the vegetable is mixed with raw chopped shallot, green chilies, salt, fresh coriander and mustard oil. Sometimes fried tomatoes and deep-fried potatoes are also added, creating a dish called begun bhorta. In a dish called bharli vangi, brinjal is stuffed with ground coconut, peanuts, and masala (spices), and then cooked in oil.
Eggplant is often stewed, as in the French ratatouille. Eggplant is also often deep fried as in the Italian parmigiana di melanzane, the Turkish karn?yar?k or Turkish and Greek musakka/moussaka, and Middle-Eastern and South Asian dishes. Eggplants can also be battered before deep-frying and served with a sauce made of tahini and tamarind. In Iranian cuisine, it is blended with whey as kashk e-bademjan, tomatoes as mirza ghassemi or made into stew as khoresh-e-bademjan. It can be sliced and deep-fried, then served with plain yogurt (optionally topped with a tomato and garlic sauce), such as in the Turkish dish patl?can k?zartmas? (meaning fried aubergines), or without yogurt, as in patl?can ?ak?uka. Perhaps the best-known Turkish eggplant dishes are imam bay?ld? (vegetarian) and karn?yar?k (with minced meat).
Almagro eggplants
It may also be roasted in its skin until charred, so the pulp can be removed and blended with other ingredients, such as lemon, tahini, and garlic, as in the Arab baba ghanoush and the similar Greek melitzanosalata. A mix of roasted eggplant, roasted red peppers, chopped onions, tomatoes, mushrooms, carrots, celery and spices is called zacusc? in Romania , and ajvar or pinjur in the Balkans.
A Spanish dish called escalivada in Catalonia calls for strips of roasted aubergine, sweet pepper, onion and tomato. In Andalusia, eggplant is mostly cooked thinly sliced, deep fried in olive oil and served hot with honey ("Berenjenas a la Cordobesa"). In the La Mancha region of central Spain, a small eggplant is pickled in vinegar, paprika, olive oil and red peppers. The result is berenjena de Almagro, Ciudad Real.
A Levantine specialty is Makdous, another pickling of eggplants, stuffed with red peppers and walnuts in olive oil.
Eggplant can be hollowed out and stuffed with meat, rice, or other fillings, and then baked. In the Caucasus, for example, it is fried and stuffed with walnut paste to make nigvziani badrijani.
Cultivation and pests[edit]
In tropical and subtropical climates, eggplant can be sown directly into the garden. Eggplant grown in temperate climates fares better when transplanted into the garden after all danger of frost has passed. Seeds are typically started eight to ten weeks prior to the anticipated frost-free date. Solanum melongena is included on a list of low flammability plants, indicating that it is suitable for growing within a building protection zone.[24]
Spacing should be 45 to 60 cm (18 to 24 in) between plants, depending on cultivar, and 60 to 90 cm (24 to 35 in) between rows, depending on the type of cultivation equipment being used. Mulching helps conserve moisture and prevent weeds and fungal diseases. The flowers are relatively unattractive to bees and the first blossoms often do not set fruit.[citation needed] Hand pollination by shaking the flowers improves the set of the first blossoms. Growers typically cut fruits from the vine just above the calyx owing to the somewhat woody stems. Flowers are complete, containing both female and male structures, and may be self-pollinated or cross-pollinated.[25]
Many of the pests and diseases that afflict other Solanaceous plants, such as tomato, pepper (capsicum), and potato, are also troublesome to eggplants. For this reason, it should generally not be planted in areas previously occupied by its close relatives. However, since eggplants can be particularly susceptible to pests such as white flies, they are sometimes grown with slightly less susceptible plants, such as pepper, as a sacrificial trap crop. Four years should separate successive crops of eggplants to reduce pest pressure.
Common North American pests include the potato beetles, flea beetles, aphids, white flies and spider mites. Mature adult pests can be removed by hand, though flea beetles can be especially difficult to control.[citation needed] A commonly used herbicide for eggplant is dimethyl tetrachloroterephthalate. Good sanitation and crop rotation practices are extremely important for controlling fungal disease, the most serious of which is Verticillium.
Production[edit]
Production of eggplant in 2013 by country[26]
In 2013, global production of eggplants was 49.4 million tonnes. More than 1,600,000 hectares (4,000,000 acres) are devoted to the cultivation of eggplants in the world.[27] 57% of output comes from China alone.[28] India (27% of world total), Iran, Egypt and Turkey were also major producers that, combined with other Asian countries, constituted 94% of world production.[28]
Top countries in eggplant
production (2013)(millions of tonnes)(million sq. mi)[28]
RankCountryProductionProduction/Area
1 China28.47.68
2 India13.410.56
3 Iran1.42.2
4 Egypt1.23.08
5 Turkey0.82.64
World
49.40.85
Nutrition[edit]
Eggplant, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy104 kJ (25 kcal)
Carbohydrates
5.88 g
Sugars3.53 g
Dietary fiber3 g
Fat
0.18 g
Protein
0.98 g
Vitamins
Thiamine (B1)(3%) 0.039 mg
Riboflavin (B2)(3%) 0.037 mg
Niacin (B3)(4%) 0.649 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)(6%) 0.281 mg
Vitamin B6(6%) 0.084 mg
Folate (B9)(6%) 22 ?g
Vitamin C(3%) 2.2 mg
Vitamin E(2%) 0.3 mg
Vitamin K(3%) 3.5 ?g
Minerals
Calcium(1%) 9 mg
Iron(2%) 0.23 mg
Magnesium(4%) 14 mg
Manganese(11%) 0.232 mg
Phosphorus(3%) 24 mg
Potassium(5%) 229 mg
Zinc(2%) 0.16 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
Units
?g = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Nutritionally, raw eggplant is low in fat, protein, dietary fiber and carbohydrates (see table). It also provides low amounts of essential nutrients, with only manganese having a moderate percentage (11%) of the Daily Value (table). Minor changes in nutrient composition occur with season, environment of cultivation (open field or greenhouse), and genotype.[29]
Chemistry[edit]
The color of purple skin varieties is due to the anthocyanin nasunin.[30]
The browning of eggplant flesh results from the oxidation of polyphenols, such as the most abundant phenolic compound in the fruit, chlorogenic acid.[31]
Allergies[edit]
Case reports of itchy skin or mouth, mild headache, and stomach upset after handling or eating eggplant have been reported anecdotally and published in medical journals (see also oral allergy syndrome). A 2008 study of a sample of 741 people in India, where eggplant is commonly consumed, found nearly 10% reported some allergic symptoms after consuming eggplant, with 1.4% showing symptoms within less than two hours.[32] Contact dermatitis from eggplant leaves[33] and allergy to eggplant flower pollen[34] have also been reported. Individuals who are atopic (genetically predisposed to developing certain allergic hypersensitivity reactions) are more likely to have a reaction to eggplant, which may be because eggplant is high in histamines. A few proteins and at least one secondary metabolite have been identified as potential allergens.[35] Cooking eggplant thoroughly seems to preclude reactions in some individuals, but at least one of the allergenic proteins survives the cooking process.
Taxonomy[edit]
The eggplant is quite often featured in the older scientific literature under the junior synonyms S. ovigerum and S. trongum. Several other now-invalid names have been uniquely applied to it:[36]
Melongena ovata Mill.
Solanum album Noronha
Solanum insanum L.
Solanum longum Roxb.
Solanum melanocarpum Dunal
Solanum melongenum St.-Lag.
Solanum oviferum Salisb.
Prachi Salisb.
Segmented purple eggplant
A number of subspecies and varieties have been named, mainly by Dikii, Dunal, and (invalidly) by Sweet. Names for various eggplant types, such as agreste, album, divaricatum, esculentum, giganteum, globosi, inerme, insanum, leucoum, luteum, multifidum, oblongo-cylindricum, ovigera, racemiflorum, racemosum, ruber, rumphii, sinuatorepandum, stenoleucum, subrepandum, tongdongense, variegatum, violaceum and viride, are not considered to refer to anything more than cultivar groups at best. On the other hand, Solanum incanum and cockroach berry (S. capsicoides), other eggplant-like nightshades described by Linnaeus and Allioni, respectively, were occasionally considered eggplant varieties, but this is not correct.[36]
The eggplant has a long history of taxonomic confusion with the scarlet and Ethiopian eggplants (Solanum aethiopicum), known as gilo and nakati respectively, and described by Linnaeus as S. aethiopicum. The eggplant was sometimes considered a variety violaceum of that species. S. violaceum of de Candolle applies to Linnaeus' S. aethiopicum. There is an actual S. violaceum, an unrelated plant described by Ortega, which used to include Dunal's S. amblymerum and was often confused with the same author's S. brownii.[36]
Like the potato and Solanum lichtensteinii, but unlike the tomato, which then was generally put in a different genus, the eggplant was also described as S. esculentum, in this case once more in the course of Dunal's work. He also recognized the varieties aculeatum, inerme and subinerme at that time. Similarly, H.C.F. Schuhmacher and Peter Thonning named the eggplant as S. edule, which is also a junior synonym of sticky nightshade (S. sisymbriifolium). Scopoli's S. zeylanicum refers to the eggplant, and that of Blanco to S. lasiocarpum.[36]
Gallery[edit]
Flowers of the Thai eggplant
Matured yellow eggplant
Varieties of eggplants, showing diversity in forms and colors (purple, green, red, white and yellow)
See also[edit]
iconFood portal
Eggplant production in China
Eggplant salads and appetizers
Imperial examination in Chinese mythology
Lao eggplant
List of eggplant dishes
Solanum aethiopicum
Vietnamese eggplant
References[edit]
^ Aubergine, Oxford English Dictionary, Undated.Retrieved: 7 August 2015.
^ "Oxford Dictionary, s.v. brinjal". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 4 April 2016.
^ Tsao and Lo in "Vegetables: Types and Biology". Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering by Yiu H. Hui (2006). CRC Press. ISBN 1-57444-551-0.
^ Doijode, S. D. (2001). Seed storage of horticultural crops (pp 157). Haworth Press: ISBN 1-56022-901-2
^ Ancestor of brinjal Solanum incanum
^ "USDA GRIN Taxonomy". Retrieved 20 November 2014.
^ Fuchsia Dunlop (2006), Revolutionary Chinese Cookbook: Recipes from Hunan Province, Ebury Press, p. 202
^ The Book of Agriculture by Ibn Al-Awwam, translated from Arabic to French by J.-J. Clément-Mullet, year 1866, volume 2 page 236.
^ The first record of Catalan albergínia = "aubergine" is in 1328 according to the Catalan dictionary Diccionari.cat. There is an earlier record in Catalan, from the 13th century, according to the French Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales. A number of old variant spellings for the aubergine word in Romance dialects in Iberia indicate the word was borrowed medievally from Arabic; Dictionary of Arabic and Allied Loanwords: Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Galician and Kindred Dialects, by Federico Corriente, year 2008 page 60.
^ The Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes, by John Gerarde, year 1597 page 274.
^ Kitchen Daily (30 August 2012). "Is Raw Eggplant Poisonous?". Kitchen Daily.
^ a b Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd edition, 2000, s.v. 'mad-apple'
^ Edward William Lane, An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, v. 1, p. 378, footnote 1.
^ Oxford English Dictionary, 1st edition, 1891, s.v. 'eggplant'
^ a b c Oxford English Dictionary, 1st edition, 1888, s.v. 'brinjal', which supersedes the 1885 OED etymology s.v. 'aubergine'
^ a b Henry Yule, A.C. Burnell, Hobson-Jobson: The Anglo-Indian Dictionary, 1886, reprint ISBN 185326363X, p. 115, s.v. 'brinjaul'
^ Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd edition, 2001, s.v. 'melongena' and 'melongene'
^ Stephens, James M. "Eggplant, White — Solanum ovigerum Dun. and Solanum melongena var. esculentum (L.) Nees." (PDF). University of Florida IFAS Extension. Retrieved 31 August 2012.
^ a b c Kumar S, Misra A, Verma AK, Roy R, Tripathi A, Ansari KM, Das M, Dwivedi PD (2011). "Bt brinjal in India: a long way to go". GM Crops. 2 (2): 92–8. doi:10.4161/gmcr.2.2.16335. PMID 21865863.
^ Kumar S, Chandra A, Pandey KC (2008). "Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenic crop: an environment friendly insect-pest management strategy". J Environ Biol. 29 (5): 641–53. PMID 19295059.
^ Choudhary B, Gheysen G, Buysse J, van der Meer P, Burssens S (2014). "Regulatory options for genetically modified crops in India". Plant Biotechnol J. 12 (2): 135–46. doi:10.1111/pbi.12155. PMID 24460889.
^ IANS (2016-09-07). "Bt Brinjal in Bangladesh: Too early to draw conclusions on contamination, says expert". Business Standard India. Retrieved 2016-12-01.
^ "Vegetarian Meat Substitutes".
^ Mark Chladil and Jennifer Sheridan. "Fire retardant garden plants for the urban fringe and rural areas" (PDF). www.fire.tas.gov.au. Tasmanian Fire Research Fund.
^ Westerfield, Robert (2008-11-14). "Pollination of Vegetable Crops" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-07-01.
^ "FAOSTAT". faostat3.fao.org. Retrieved 2016-04-07.
^ "FAOSTAT". FAO. 2012-05-12. Retrieved 2012-05-12.
^ a b c "Production/Crops for Eggplant in 2013". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). 2015. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
^ San José R, Sánchez-Mata MC, Cámara M, Prohens J (2014). "Eggplant fruit composition as affected by the cultivation environment and genetic constitution". J Sci Food Agric. 94 (13): 2774–84. doi:10.1002/jsfa.6623. PMID 25328929.
^ Noda, Yasuko; Kneyuki, Takao; Igarashi, Kiharu; Mori, Akitane; Packer, Lester (2000). "Antioxidant activity of nasunin, an anthocyanin in eggplant peels". Toxicology. 148 (2–3): 119. doi:10.1016/S0300-483X(00)00202-X. PMID 10962130.
^ Jaime Prohens, Adrián Rodríguez-Burruezo, María Dolores Raigón and Fernando Nuez (2007). "Total Phenolic Concentration and Browning Susceptibility in a Collection of Different Varietal Types and Hybrids of Eggplant: Implications for Breeding for Higher Nutritional Quality and Reduced Browning" (PDF). J Amer Soc Hort Sci. 132 (5): 638–646. )
^ B. N. Harish Babu *, P. A. Mahesh † and Y. P. Venkatesh * A cross-sectional study on the prevalence of food allergy to eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) reveals female predominance. Clinical & Experimental Allergy 38(11):1795–1802, 2008
^ Kabashima K., Miyachi Y. Contact dermatitis due to eggplant Contact Dermatitis 2004;50(2):101–102
^ Gerth van Wijk R, Toorenenbergen AW, Dieges PH. Occupational pollinosis in commercial gardeners. [Dutch] Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 1989;133(42):2081-3
^ SN Pramod,* YP Venkatesh. Allergy to Eggplant (Solanum melongena) Caused by a Putative Secondary Metabolite. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 2008; Vol. 18(1): 59–62
^ a b c d Solanum melongena L. on Solanaceae Source Archived March 10, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.: Images, specimens and a full list of scientific synonyms previously used to refer to the eggplant. Archived March 10, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
External links[edit]
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Eggplant
Media related to Solanum melongena at Wikimedia Commons
Plantation the Malaysian brinjal without fertilizers
Eggplant at DMOZ
Authority control
GND: 4195367-8
Categories: EggplantsCrops originating from IndiaCrops originating from PakistanEdible SolanaceaeFlora of the MaldivesFlora of the MediterraneanFruits originating in AsiaPlants described in 1753Tropical fruitEggplant production
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Eggplant (disambiguation).
Eggplant
Solanum melongena 24 08 2012 (1).JPG
Scientific classification
Kingdom
lantae(unranked):Angiosperms
(unranked):Eudicots
(unranked):Asterids
Order:Solanales
Family:Solanaceae
Genus:Solanum
Species:S. melongena
Binomial name
Solanum melongena
L.
Synonyms
Solanum ovigerum Dunal
Solanum trongum Poir.
and see text
Eggplant (Solanum melongena), or aubergine, is a species of nightshade grown for its edible fruit. Eggplant is the common name in North America and Australia, but British English uses aubergine.[1] It is known in South Asia, Southeast Asia and South Africa as brinjal.[2] Other common names are melongene, garden egg or guinea squash.
The fruit is widely used in cooking. As a member of the genus Solanum, it is related to the tomato and the potato. It was originally domesticated from the wild nightshade species, the thorn or bitter apple, S. incanum,[3][4][5] probably with two independent domestications, one in South Asia and one in East Asia.[6]
Contents
1Description
2History
3Etymology and regional names
4Cultivated varieties
4.1Varieties
4.1.1Genetically engineered aubergine
5Cooking and preparing
6Cultivation and pests
6.1Production
7Nutrition
8Chemistry
9Allergies
10Taxonomy
11Gallery
12See also
13References
14External links
Description[edit]
The eggplant is a delicate, tropical perennial often cultivated as a tender or half-hardy annual in temperate climates. The stem is often spiny. The flower is white to purple, with a five-lobed corolla and yellow stamens. The egg-shaped glossy purple fruit has white flesh with a meaty texture. The cut surface of the flesh rapidly turns brown when the fruit is cut open.
It grows 40 to 150 cm (1.3 to 4.9 ft) tall, with large, coarsely lobed leaves that are 10 to 20 cm (3.9 to 7.9 in) long and 5 to 10 cm (2.0 to 3.9 in) broad. Semi-wild types can grow much larger, to 225 cm (7.38 ft) with large leaves over 30 cm (12 in) long and 15 cm (5.9 in) broad. On wild plants, the fruit is less than 3 cm (1.2 in) in diameter, but much larger in cultivated forms: 30 cm (12 in) or more in length.
Botanically classified as a berry, the fruit contains numerous small, soft seeds that, though edible, taste bitter because they contain nicotinoid alkaloids like the related tobacco.
History[edit]
The plant species originated in cultivation. It has been cultivated in southern and eastern Asia since prehistory. The first known written record of the plant is found in Qimin Yaoshu , an ancient Chinese agricultural treatise completed in 544.[7] The numerous Arabic and North African names for it, along with the lack of the ancient Greek and Roman names, indicate it was introduced throughout the Mediterranean area by the Arabs in the early Middle Ages. A book on agriculture by Ibn Al-Awwam in 12th century Arabic Spain described how to grow aubergines.[8] There are records from later medieval Catalan and Spanish.[9]
The aubergine is unrecorded in England until the 16th century. An English botany book in 1597 stated:
This plant groweth in Egypt almost everywhere... bringing forth fruit of the bigness of a great cucumber.... We have had the same in our London gardens, where it hath borne flowers, but the winter approaching before the time of ripening, it perished: nothwithstanding it came to bear fruit of the bigness of a goose egg one extraordinary temperate year... but never to the full ripeness.[10]
Because of the plant's relationship with other nightshades, the fruit was at one time believed to be extremely poisonous. The flowers and leaves can be poisonous if consumed in large quantities due to the presence of solanine.[11]
The eggplant has a special place in folklore. In 13th century Italian traditional folklore, the eggplant can cause insanity.[12] In 19th century Egypt, it was said that insanity was "more common and more violent" when the eggplant is in season in the summer.[13]
Etymology and regional names[edit]
Closeup of an eggplant flower of a long-fruited Chinese variety in Hong Kong
The plant and fruit have a profusion of English names: eggplant (North America, Australia), aubergine (Britain), brinjal (South Asia, South Africa, Malaysia, Singapore, terong (Indonesia), and West Indies, Trinidad), melongene (Caribbean), and formerly melongena and mad-apple.
The word "eggplant" was first recorded in 1767, and was originally applied to white varieties;[14] some 18th-century European cultivars were small, round, yellow or white, resembling goose or hen's eggs. The other names, even mad-apple, all ultimately derive from a Dravidian word with reflexes in modern Malayalam va?utina and Tamil va?utu?ai, transmitted through Sanskrit v?tigama, Prakrit v?i?a?a, Persian ??????? b?ding?n, and Arabic b??inj?n ???????.[15]
The Anglo-Indian name "brinjal" or brinjaul comes from the Portuguese bringella, bringiela, or beringela,[15] whereas the name baingan or baigan, also sometimes used in English in South Asia as well as in Trinidad, appears to be re-borrowed from the Sanskrit or Persian name.[16]
Eggplant with chicken eggs
The Arabic name is the common source of all the European names for this plant, but through two distinct paths of transmission, with the melongene family coming through the eastern Mediterranean, and the aubergine family through the western Mediterranean. In the western Mediterranean, the Arabic (al)-b??inj?n was borrowed as Spanish alberengena and berenjena, Catalan albergínia, and Portuguese beringela, whence the modern French aubergine (and the earlier albergine, albergaine, albergame, belingèle), the source of the British English aubergine.[15]
“...probably there is no word of the kind which has undergone such extraordinary variety of modifications, whilst retaining the same meaning, as this...”
— Hobson-Jobson (1886)[16]
In the eastern Mediterranean, b??inj?n was borrowed into Byzantine Greek first as ??????????, then modified to ????????? melitzána and melanzana, influenced by Greek ??????- 'black'. This came into Italian as melongiana and melanzana, and into Medieval Latin as melongena. The Latin name was later used by Tournefort as a genus name, then by Linnaeus as a species name. These forms came into English; though melongene has become obsolete, as have the French merangène, melongène/melanjan, it persists in the Caribbean English melongene or meloongen.[17] In Italian, melanzana was interpreted as mela insana 'crazy apple'; this was translated into English as mad apple.[12]
Cultivated varieties[edit]
Three varieties of eggplant
Different varieties of the plant produce fruit of different size, shape, and color, though typically purple. The most widely cultivated varieties—cultivars—in Europe and North America today are elongated ovoid, 12–25 cm long (?4 1?2 to 9 in) and 6–9 cm broad (2 to 4 in) with a dark purple skin.[citation needed]
A much wider range of shapes, sizes and colors is grown in India and elsewhere in Asia. Larger varieties weighing up to a kilogram (2.2 pounds) grow in the region between the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, while smaller varieties are found elsewhere. Colors vary from white to yellow or green, as well as reddish-purple and dark purple. Some cultivars have a color gradient—white at the stem; to bright pink, deep purple or even black. Green or purple cultivars with white striping also exist. Chinese varieties are commonly shaped like a narrower, slightly pendulous cucumber, and are sometimes miscalled Japanese aubergines in North America. But there are also Asian varieties of Japanese breeding.
Oval or elongated oval-shaped and black-skinned cultivars include 'Harris Special Hibush', 'Burpee Hybrid', 'Bringal Bloom', 'Black Magic', 'Classic', 'Dusky', and 'Black Beauty'.
Slim cultivars in purple-black skin include 'Little Fingers', 'Ichiban', 'Pingtung Long', and 'Tycoon'
In green skin, 'Louisiana Long Green' and 'Thai (Long) Green'
In white skin, 'Dourga'.
Traditional, white-skinned, egg-shaped cultivars include 'Casper' and 'Easter Egg'.
Bi-colored cultivars with color gradient include 'Rosa Bianca', 'Violetta di Firenze', 'Bianca Sfumata di Rosa' (heirloom), and 'Prosperosa' (heirloom).
Bi-colored cultivars with striping include 'Listada de Gandia' and 'Udumalapet'.
In some parts of India, miniature varieties, most commonly called vengan, are popular.
Varieties[edit]
Solanum melongena var. esculentum common aubergine, including white varieties, with many cultivars[18]
Solanum melongena var. depressum dwarf aubergine
Solanum melongena var. serpentium snake aubergine
Genetically engineered aubergine[edit]
Bt brinjal is a transgenic aubergine that contains a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis.[19] This variety was designed to give the plant resistance to lepidopteran insects like the brinjal fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis) and fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera).[19][20]
On 9 February 2010, the Environment Ministry of India imposed a moratorium on the cultivation of Bt brinjal after protests against regulatory approval of cultivated Bt brinjal in 2009, stating the moratorium would last "for as long as it is needed to establish public trust and confidence".[19] This decision was deemed controversial, as it deviated from previous practices with other genetically modified crops in India.[21] Bt brinjal was approved for commercial cultivation in Bangaladesh in 2013.[22]
Cooking and preparing[edit]
Melanzane alla Parmigiana, "eggplant parmesan"
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eggplant-based food.
The raw fruit can have a somewhat bitter taste, or even an astringent quality, but becomes tender when cooked and develops a rich, complex flavor. The fruit is capable of absorbing large amounts of cooking fats and sauces, making for very rich dishes, but salting reduces the amount of oil absorbed. Many recipes advise salting, rinsing and draining the sliced fruit (a process known as "degorging") to soften it and to reduce the amount of fat absorbed during cooking, but mainly to remove the bitterness of the earlier cultivars. Some modern varieties—including large purple varieties commonly imported into western Europe—do not need this treatment.
Eggplant is used in the cuisines of many countries. Eggplant, due to its texture and bulk, is sometimes used as a meat substitute in vegan and vegetarian cuisine.[23] The fruit flesh is smooth, as in the related tomato. The numerous seeds are soft and edible along with the rest of the fruit. The thin skin is also edible.
Eggplant is widely used in its native India, for example in sambhar (a tamarind lentil stew), dalma (a dal preparation with vegetables, native to Odisha), chutney, curry, and achaar (a pickled dish). Owing to its versatile nature and wide use in both everyday and festive Indian food, it is often described (under the name "baingan" or "brinjal") as the "king of vegetables". Roasted, skinned, mashed, mixed with onions, tomatoes and spices and then slow cooked gives the South Asian dish baingan bharta or gojju, similar to salat? de vinete in Romania. Another version of the dish, begun-pora (eggplant charred or burnt), is very popular in Bangladesh and the east Indian states of Odisha and West Bengal where the pulp of the vegetable is mixed with raw chopped shallot, green chilies, salt, fresh coriander and mustard oil. Sometimes fried tomatoes and deep-fried potatoes are also added, creating a dish called begun bhorta. In a dish called bharli vangi, brinjal is stuffed with ground coconut, peanuts, and masala (spices), and then cooked in oil.
Eggplant is often stewed, as in the French ratatouille. Eggplant is also often deep fried as in the Italian parmigiana di melanzane, the Turkish karn?yar?k or Turkish and Greek musakka/moussaka, and Middle-Eastern and South Asian dishes. Eggplants can also be battered before deep-frying and served with a sauce made of tahini and tamarind. In Iranian cuisine, it is blended with whey as kashk e-bademjan, tomatoes as mirza ghassemi or made into stew as khoresh-e-bademjan. It can be sliced and deep-fried, then served with plain yogurt (optionally topped with a tomato and garlic sauce), such as in the Turkish dish patl?can k?zartmas? (meaning fried aubergines), or without yogurt, as in patl?can ?ak?uka. Perhaps the best-known Turkish eggplant dishes are imam bay?ld? (vegetarian) and karn?yar?k (with minced meat).
Almagro eggplants
It may also be roasted in its skin until charred, so the pulp can be removed and blended with other ingredients, such as lemon, tahini, and garlic, as in the Arab baba ghanoush and the similar Greek melitzanosalata. A mix of roasted eggplant, roasted red peppers, chopped onions, tomatoes, mushrooms, carrots, celery and spices is called zacusc? in Romania , and ajvar or pinjur in the Balkans.
A Spanish dish called escalivada in Catalonia calls for strips of roasted aubergine, sweet pepper, onion and tomato. In Andalusia, eggplant is mostly cooked thinly sliced, deep fried in olive oil and served hot with honey ("Berenjenas a la Cordobesa"). In the La Mancha region of central Spain, a small eggplant is pickled in vinegar, paprika, olive oil and red peppers. The result is berenjena de Almagro, Ciudad Real.
A Levantine specialty is Makdous, another pickling of eggplants, stuffed with red peppers and walnuts in olive oil.
Eggplant can be hollowed out and stuffed with meat, rice, or other fillings, and then baked. In the Caucasus, for example, it is fried and stuffed with walnut paste to make nigvziani badrijani.
Cultivation and pests[edit]
In tropical and subtropical climates, eggplant can be sown directly into the garden. Eggplant grown in temperate climates fares better when transplanted into the garden after all danger of frost has passed. Seeds are typically started eight to ten weeks prior to the anticipated frost-free date. Solanum melongena is included on a list of low flammability plants, indicating that it is suitable for growing within a building protection zone.[24]
Spacing should be 45 to 60 cm (18 to 24 in) between plants, depending on cultivar, and 60 to 90 cm (24 to 35 in) between rows, depending on the type of cultivation equipment being used. Mulching helps conserve moisture and prevent weeds and fungal diseases. The flowers are relatively unattractive to bees and the first blossoms often do not set fruit.[citation needed] Hand pollination by shaking the flowers improves the set of the first blossoms. Growers typically cut fruits from the vine just above the calyx owing to the somewhat woody stems. Flowers are complete, containing both female and male structures, and may be self-pollinated or cross-pollinated.[25]
Many of the pests and diseases that afflict other Solanaceous plants, such as tomato, pepper (capsicum), and potato, are also troublesome to eggplants. For this reason, it should generally not be planted in areas previously occupied by its close relatives. However, since eggplants can be particularly susceptible to pests such as white flies, they are sometimes grown with slightly less susceptible plants, such as pepper, as a sacrificial trap crop. Four years should separate successive crops of eggplants to reduce pest pressure.
Common North American pests include the potato beetles, flea beetles, aphids, white flies and spider mites. Mature adult pests can be removed by hand, though flea beetles can be especially difficult to control.[citation needed] A commonly used herbicide for eggplant is dimethyl tetrachloroterephthalate. Good sanitation and crop rotation practices are extremely important for controlling fungal disease, the most serious of which is Verticillium.
Production[edit]
Production of eggplant in 2013 by country[26]
In 2013, global production of eggplants was 49.4 million tonnes. More than 1,600,000 hectares (4,000,000 acres) are devoted to the cultivation of eggplants in the world.[27] 57% of output comes from China alone.[28] India (27% of world total), Iran, Egypt and Turkey were also major producers that, combined with other Asian countries, constituted 94% of world production.[28]
Top countries in eggplant
production (2013)(millions of tonnes)(million sq. mi)[28]
RankCountryProductionProduction/Area
1 China28.47.68
2 India13.410.56
3 Iran1.42.2
4 Egypt1.23.08
5 Turkey0.82.64
World
49.40.85
Nutrition[edit]
Eggplant, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy104 kJ (25 kcal)
Carbohydrates
5.88 g
Sugars3.53 g
Dietary fiber3 g
Fat
0.18 g
Protein
0.98 g
Vitamins
Thiamine (B1)(3%) 0.039 mg
Riboflavin (B2)(3%) 0.037 mg
Niacin (B3)(4%) 0.649 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)(6%) 0.281 mg
Vitamin B6(6%) 0.084 mg
Folate (B9)(6%) 22 ?g
Vitamin C(3%) 2.2 mg
Vitamin E(2%) 0.3 mg
Vitamin K(3%) 3.5 ?g
Minerals
Calcium(1%) 9 mg
Iron(2%) 0.23 mg
Magnesium(4%) 14 mg
Manganese(11%) 0.232 mg
Phosphorus(3%) 24 mg
Potassium(5%) 229 mg
Zinc(2%) 0.16 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
Units
?g = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Nutritionally, raw eggplant is low in fat, protein, dietary fiber and carbohydrates (see table). It also provides low amounts of essential nutrients, with only manganese having a moderate percentage (11%) of the Daily Value (table). Minor changes in nutrient composition occur with season, environment of cultivation (open field or greenhouse), and genotype.[29]
Chemistry[edit]
The color of purple skin varieties is due to the anthocyanin nasunin.[30]
The browning of eggplant flesh results from the oxidation of polyphenols, such as the most abundant phenolic compound in the fruit, chlorogenic acid.[31]
Allergies[edit]
Case reports of itchy skin or mouth, mild headache, and stomach upset after handling or eating eggplant have been reported anecdotally and published in medical journals (see also oral allergy syndrome). A 2008 study of a sample of 741 people in India, where eggplant is commonly consumed, found nearly 10% reported some allergic symptoms after consuming eggplant, with 1.4% showing symptoms within less than two hours.[32] Contact dermatitis from eggplant leaves[33] and allergy to eggplant flower pollen[34] have also been reported. Individuals who are atopic (genetically predisposed to developing certain allergic hypersensitivity reactions) are more likely to have a reaction to eggplant, which may be because eggplant is high in histamines. A few proteins and at least one secondary metabolite have been identified as potential allergens.[35] Cooking eggplant thoroughly seems to preclude reactions in some individuals, but at least one of the allergenic proteins survives the cooking process.
Taxonomy[edit]
The eggplant is quite often featured in the older scientific literature under the junior synonyms S. ovigerum and S. trongum. Several other now-invalid names have been uniquely applied to it:[36]
Melongena ovata Mill.
Solanum album Noronha
Solanum insanum L.
Solanum longum Roxb.
Solanum melanocarpum Dunal
Solanum melongenum St.-Lag.
Solanum oviferum Salisb.
Prachi Salisb.
Segmented purple eggplant
A number of subspecies and varieties have been named, mainly by Dikii, Dunal, and (invalidly) by Sweet. Names for various eggplant types, such as agreste, album, divaricatum, esculentum, giganteum, globosi, inerme, insanum, leucoum, luteum, multifidum, oblongo-cylindricum, ovigera, racemiflorum, racemosum, ruber, rumphii, sinuatorepandum, stenoleucum, subrepandum, tongdongense, variegatum, violaceum and viride, are not considered to refer to anything more than cultivar groups at best. On the other hand, Solanum incanum and cockroach berry (S. capsicoides), other eggplant-like nightshades described by Linnaeus and Allioni, respectively, were occasionally considered eggplant varieties, but this is not correct.[36]
The eggplant has a long history of taxonomic confusion with the scarlet and Ethiopian eggplants (Solanum aethiopicum), known as gilo and nakati respectively, and described by Linnaeus as S. aethiopicum. The eggplant was sometimes considered a variety violaceum of that species. S. violaceum of de Candolle applies to Linnaeus' S. aethiopicum. There is an actual S. violaceum, an unrelated plant described by Ortega, which used to include Dunal's S. amblymerum and was often confused with the same author's S. brownii.[36]
Like the potato and Solanum lichtensteinii, but unlike the tomato, which then was generally put in a different genus, the eggplant was also described as S. esculentum, in this case once more in the course of Dunal's work. He also recognized the varieties aculeatum, inerme and subinerme at that time. Similarly, H.C.F. Schuhmacher and Peter Thonning named the eggplant as S. edule, which is also a junior synonym of sticky nightshade (S. sisymbriifolium). Scopoli's S. zeylanicum refers to the eggplant, and that of Blanco to S. lasiocarpum.[36]
Gallery[edit]
Flowers of the Thai eggplant
Matured yellow eggplant
Varieties of eggplants, showing diversity in forms and colors (purple, green, red, white and yellow)
See also[edit]
iconFood portal
Eggplant production in China
Eggplant salads and appetizers
Imperial examination in Chinese mythology
Lao eggplant
List of eggplant dishes
Solanum aethiopicum
Vietnamese eggplant
References[edit]
^ Aubergine, Oxford English Dictionary, Undated.Retrieved: 7 August 2015.
^ "Oxford Dictionary, s.v. brinjal". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 4 April 2016.
^ Tsao and Lo in "Vegetables: Types and Biology". Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering by Yiu H. Hui (2006). CRC Press. ISBN 1-57444-551-0.
^ Doijode, S. D. (2001). Seed storage of horticultural crops (pp 157). Haworth Press: ISBN 1-56022-901-2
^ Ancestor of brinjal Solanum incanum
^ "USDA GRIN Taxonomy". Retrieved 20 November 2014.
^ Fuchsia Dunlop (2006), Revolutionary Chinese Cookbook: Recipes from Hunan Province, Ebury Press, p. 202
^ The Book of Agriculture by Ibn Al-Awwam, translated from Arabic to French by J.-J. Clément-Mullet, year 1866, volume 2 page 236.
^ The first record of Catalan albergínia = "aubergine" is in 1328 according to the Catalan dictionary Diccionari.cat. There is an earlier record in Catalan, from the 13th century, according to the French Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales. A number of old variant spellings for the aubergine word in Romance dialects in Iberia indicate the word was borrowed medievally from Arabic; Dictionary of Arabic and Allied Loanwords: Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Galician and Kindred Dialects, by Federico Corriente, year 2008 page 60.
^ The Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes, by John Gerarde, year 1597 page 274.
^ Kitchen Daily (30 August 2012). "Is Raw Eggplant Poisonous?". Kitchen Daily.
^ a b Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd edition, 2000, s.v. 'mad-apple'
^ Edward William Lane, An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, v. 1, p. 378, footnote 1.
^ Oxford English Dictionary, 1st edition, 1891, s.v. 'eggplant'
^ a b c Oxford English Dictionary, 1st edition, 1888, s.v. 'brinjal', which supersedes the 1885 OED etymology s.v. 'aubergine'
^ a b Henry Yule, A.C. Burnell, Hobson-Jobson: The Anglo-Indian Dictionary, 1886, reprint ISBN 185326363X, p. 115, s.v. 'brinjaul'
^ Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd edition, 2001, s.v. 'melongena' and 'melongene'
^ Stephens, James M. "Eggplant, White — Solanum ovigerum Dun. and Solanum melongena var. esculentum (L.) Nees." (PDF). University of Florida IFAS Extension. Retrieved 31 August 2012.
^ a b c Kumar S, Misra A, Verma AK, Roy R, Tripathi A, Ansari KM, Das M, Dwivedi PD (2011). "Bt brinjal in India: a long way to go". GM Crops. 2 (2): 92–8. doi:10.4161/gmcr.2.2.16335. PMID 21865863.
^ Kumar S, Chandra A, Pandey KC (2008). "Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenic crop: an environment friendly insect-pest management strategy". J Environ Biol. 29 (5): 641–53. PMID 19295059.
^ Choudhary B, Gheysen G, Buysse J, van der Meer P, Burssens S (2014). "Regulatory options for genetically modified crops in India". Plant Biotechnol J. 12 (2): 135–46. doi:10.1111/pbi.12155. PMID 24460889.
^ IANS (2016-09-07). "Bt Brinjal in Bangladesh: Too early to draw conclusions on contamination, says expert". Business Standard India. Retrieved 2016-12-01.
^ "Vegetarian Meat Substitutes".
^ Mark Chladil and Jennifer Sheridan. "Fire retardant garden plants for the urban fringe and rural areas" (PDF). www.fire.tas.gov.au. Tasmanian Fire Research Fund.
^ Westerfield, Robert (2008-11-14). "Pollination of Vegetable Crops" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-07-01.
^ "FAOSTAT". faostat3.fao.org. Retrieved 2016-04-07.
^ "FAOSTAT". FAO. 2012-05-12. Retrieved 2012-05-12.
^ a b c "Production/Crops for Eggplant in 2013". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). 2015. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
^ San José R, Sánchez-Mata MC, Cámara M, Prohens J (2014). "Eggplant fruit composition as affected by the cultivation environment and genetic constitution". J Sci Food Agric. 94 (13): 2774–84. doi:10.1002/jsfa.6623. PMID 25328929.
^ Noda, Yasuko; Kneyuki, Takao; Igarashi, Kiharu; Mori, Akitane; Packer, Lester (2000). "Antioxidant activity of nasunin, an anthocyanin in eggplant peels". Toxicology. 148 (2–3): 119. doi:10.1016/S0300-483X(00)00202-X. PMID 10962130.
^ Jaime Prohens, Adrián Rodríguez-Burruezo, María Dolores Raigón and Fernando Nuez (2007). "Total Phenolic Concentration and Browning Susceptibility in a Collection of Different Varietal Types and Hybrids of Eggplant: Implications for Breeding for Higher Nutritional Quality and Reduced Browning" (PDF). J Amer Soc Hort Sci. 132 (5): 638–646. )
^ B. N. Harish Babu *, P. A. Mahesh † and Y. P. Venkatesh * A cross-sectional study on the prevalence of food allergy to eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) reveals female predominance. Clinical & Experimental Allergy 38(11):1795–1802, 2008
^ Kabashima K., Miyachi Y. Contact dermatitis due to eggplant Contact Dermatitis 2004;50(2):101–102
^ Gerth van Wijk R, Toorenenbergen AW, Dieges PH. Occupational pollinosis in commercial gardeners. [Dutch] Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 1989;133(42):2081-3
^ SN Pramod,* YP Venkatesh. Allergy to Eggplant (Solanum melongena) Caused by a Putative Secondary Metabolite. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 2008; Vol. 18(1): 59–62
^ a b c d Solanum melongena L. on Solanaceae Source Archived March 10, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.: Images, specimens and a full list of scientific synonyms previously used to refer to the eggplant. Archived March 10, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
External links[edit]
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Eggplant
Media related to Solanum melongena at Wikimedia Commons
Plantation the Malaysian brinjal without fertilizers
Eggplant at DMOZ
Authority control
GND: 4195367-8
Categories: EggplantsCrops originating from IndiaCrops originating from PakistanEdible SolanaceaeFlora of the MaldivesFlora of the MediterraneanFruits originating in AsiaPlants described in 1753Tropical fruitEggplant production
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This page was last modified on 29 December 2016, at 08:11.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki
Hoodie
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Hoodie (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A male wearing a customized pullover hoodie.
A hoodie (also called a hooded sweatshirt or hoody) is a sweatshirt with a hood. Hoodies often include a muff sewn onto the lower front, and (usually) a drawstring to adjust the hood opening.
Contents [hide]
1History
1.1Australia
1.2Canada
1.3New Zealand
1.4United Kingdom
1.5United States
2See also
3References
4External links
History[edit]
Boy wearing a hoodie
Hood, from Anglo-Saxon word, hod, in 13th century.
Hood in the 12th century
Hoodies have been a documented part of men's and women's wear for centuries. The word "hood" is said to come from the Anglo-Saxon word "h?d".[1] The garment's style and form can be traced back to Medieval Europe when the normal clothing for monks included a hood called a cowl attached to a tunic or robes,[2] and a chaperon or hooded cape was very commonly worn by any outdoors worker. Its appearance was known in England at least as early as the 12th century, possibly an import with the Norman conquest of England.[1] The hooded sweatshirt was first produced in the United States starting in the 1930s. The modern clothing style was first produced by Champion in the 1930s and marketed to laborers working in freezing temperatures in upstate New York.[3] The term hoodie entered popular usage in the 1990s.[4]
The hoodie took off in the 1970s, with several factors contributing to its success. Hip hop culture developed in New York City around this time, and high fashion also contributed during this era, as Norma Kamali and other high-profile designers embraced and glamorized the new clothing.[2] Most critical to the hoodie's popularity during this time was its iconic appearance in the blockbuster Rocky film.[citation needed] The rise of hoodies with university logos began around this time.[citation needed]
By the 1990s, the hoodie had evolved into a symbol of isolation,[citation needed] a statement of academic spirit,[citation needed] and several fashion collections.[5] The association with chavs or neds in the UK developed around this time, as their popularity rose with that specific demographic.[citation needed] Young men, often skateboarders or surfers, sported the hoodie and spread the trend across the western United States, most significantly in California.[citation needed] Tommy Hilfiger, Giorgio Armani, and Ralph Lauren, for example, used the hoodie as the primary component for many of their collections in the 1990s.[2][3] A crystal-studded hoodie made by rapper Sean "Diddy" Combs was acquired by the Victoria & Albert Museum in London.[6]
Australia[edit]
In June 2011, police in Wynnum, Brisbane, launched a "Hoodie Free Zone" initiative, with shopkeepers encouraged to ask hoodie-wearers to leave. The zone is part of an initiative to educate businesses on how they can avoid armed robberies, in which the clothing is often worn.[7]
Canada[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Across Canada, hoodies are a popular clothing item—they are sometimes worn under a coat or jacket to provide an extra layer of clothing during the winter. In the province of Saskatchewan, hoodies are often referred to as "bunny-hugs."
New Zealand[edit]
The "Hoodies on Parliament - politicians challenge youth stereotypes" campaign was launched in May 2008 in New Zealand (NZ) as part of the annual national Youth Week event, a pro-youth initiative organized to challenge youth stereotypes. To launch the campaign, NZ politicians, including National MP Nicky Wagner, Green Party MPs Sue Bradford, Nandor Tanczos and Metiria Turei, and Maori party MP Hone Harawira, wore hoodies while standing on the steps of the country's parliament. Archbishop David Moxon, Archbishop of the Anglican Dioceses, and Brian Turner President of the Methodist Church of NZ also participated in the campaign.[8]
Support and criticism were raised by politicians, who were divided over the 2008 event.[9][10] One strong response was drawn from a local government council member, Dale Evans, who donned a Ku Klux Klan outfit in protest, citing the hoodie as "not an appropriate article of clothing to celebrate."[11]
"Goodie in a Hoodie" day was then run in 2009 by New Zealand Adolescent Health and Development (NZAAHD) in partnership with Age Concern—the organisations used the campaign to highlight the stereotypes that both young people and the elderly face in New Zealand. Liz Baxendine, president of Age Concern at the time, said to the media:
Older people and young people have a lot in common. We both face stereotypes based on our age rather than our real achievements and outlook on life ... we've got to destigmatise the hoodie and see it for what it is. Everyone wears them. We need to take the hoodie back![12]
United Kingdom[edit]
"No hoodies" sign outside a pub in South London
In the UK, hoodies have been the subject of much criticism; some shoplifters have used the hood to conceal their identities from CCTV cameras in shopping centres.[13] The hoodie became a popular clothing item by the 1990s. During the 21st century, it had gained a negative image, being associated with trouble making teens and anti-social behaviour. It became one of the later items associated with "chavs", or Neds.
Angela McRobbie, professor of communications at Goldsmiths College in the UK, says the appeal of the hoodie is because of its promise of anonymity, mystery and anxiety. "The point of origin is obviously black American hip-hop culture, now thoroughly mainstream and a key part of the global economy. Leisure and sportswear adopted for everyday wear suggests a distance from the world of office suit or school uniform. Rap culture celebrates defiance, as it narrates the experience of social exclusion. Musically and stylistically, it projects menace and danger as well as anger and rage. The hooded top is one in a long line of garments chosen by young people, usually boys, to which are ascribed meanings suggesting that they are 'up to no good'. In the past, such appropriation was usually restricted to membership of specific youth cultures - leather jackets, bondage trousers - but nowadays it is the norm among young people to flag up their music and cultural preferences in this way, hence the adoption of the hoodie by boys across the boundaries of age, ethnicity and class."[14]
In May 2005, Bluewater shopping centre in Kent caused outrage by launching a code of conduct which bans its shoppers from sporting hoodies or baseball caps, although the garments remain on sale. John Prescott welcomed the move, stating that he had felt threatened by the presence of hooded teenagers at a motorway service station.[14] Then-Prime Minister Tony Blair openly supported this stance and vowed to clamp down on the anti-social behaviour with which hoodie wearers are sometimes associated. London-based rapper Lady Sovereign published a single titled "Hoodie" in protest as part of a "Save the Hoodie" campaign.[15]
In 2005, Coombeshead College in the south-west of England allowed the hoodie to become part of the boys' school uniform, but the hood could be put up only when it rained. The principal, Richard Haigh, stated that the move would help to calm some of what he called the "hysteria" surrounding the garment.[16]
The JCB Academy allows hoodies, but only a navy blue type sold in the school shop.
In February 2006, a 58-year-old teacher who was wearing a hooded top was asked to remove it when entering a Tesco store in Swindon. According to the teacher, she was wearing the hood because "my hair's a mess". The store did not have a hoodie policy. The shop apologized and said it was taking action to "make sure this doesn't happen again."[17]
In July 2006, David Cameron, leader of the Conservative Party, made a speech suggesting that the hoodie was worn more for defensive than offensive purposes.[18] The speech was referred to as "hug a hoodie" by the Labour Party.[19][20]
Despite the controversy, the hoodie has been embraced by people from all backgrounds. Zara Phillips, a member of the British royal family, has included hoodies in her range of equestrian clothing at Musto.[21]
In recent years in England many older people have been seen wearing hoodies, particularly in cold weather.
United States[edit]
1980s FBI sketch of Unabomber Ted Kaczynski
Throughout the U.S., it is common for middle school, high school, and college students to wear sweatshirts—with or without hoods—that display their respective school names or mascots across the chest, either as part of a uniform or personal preference.[citation needed] Hoodies have become mainstream fashion in the U.S., transcending the clothing item's original utilitarian purpose,[22] similar to jeans. This has found its way into a variety of styles, even so far as to be worn under a suit jacket.[citation needed]
The hooded sweatshirt is a utilitarian garment that originated in the 1930s for workers in cold New York warehouses.[6] Hoodies were later adopted by hip hop culture as a symbol of what one reporter termed "cool anonymity and vague menace."[6] When the garment was depicted in FBI composite drawings of Unabomber Ted Kaczynski, the hoodie became linked to "seedy threatening criminality," thereby further asserting its non-mainstream symbolism.[6]
In 2012 Trayvon Martin was shot in a hoodie, and protests over his death involved hoodies.[6][23] Fox News host Geraldo Rivera encouraged young people of color to stop wearing hoodies[24] though he later apologized for his comments.[25]
Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg often wears a plain grey hoodie rather than a business suit, drawing comment during his company's 2012 initial public offering.[26]
In 2015, Oklahoma state representative Don Barrington proposed a bill to criminalize wearing a "robe, mask or other disguise" in public that would "intentionally conceal the wearer's identity", which was criticized as an attempt to criminalize the wearing of the hoodie.[27]
See also[edit]
Fashion portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hoodies.
Baja jacket
Cardigan (sweater)
Goggle jacket
Parka
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b A Cyclopaedia of Costume Or Dictionary of Dress, Including Notices of ...
^ Jump up to: a b c Yusuf, Nilgin (2006-08-12). "The hoody grows up". Times Online. London. Retrieved 2007-06-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Wilson, Denis (2006-12-23). "A Look Under the Hoodie". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-06-28.
Jump up ^ "hoodie | hoody, n.". OED Online. November 2010. Oxford University Press. Accessed 11 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Richards, Chloe. "Fashion Hoodies". Idol. London.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Koehn, Donna (24 March 2012). "Hoodie becomes symbol of injustice". The Tampa Tribune. Archived from the original on 23 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Hood-free zones in Brisbane west". AAP. 28 June 2011. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011.
Jump up ^ "Hoodies on Parliament challenging youth stereotype". Scoop. 29 May 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Politicians support Hoodie Day". TVNZ. TVNZ.co.nz. 30 May 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Tait, Maggie (26 May 2008). "Youth Week Hoodie Day criticised". The New Zealand Herald. NZPA. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "Councillor stuns board with Ku Klux Klan outfit". The New Zealand Herald. 30 May 2008. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Kathryn King (12 August 2009). "Oldies but hoodies". Wanganui Chronicle. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
Jump up ^ McLean, Gareth (2005-05-13). "In the hood". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2010-05-04.
^ Jump up to: a b McLean, Gareth (2005-05-13). "In the hood". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2010-05-04.
Jump up ^ Dan Hancox: Observations on style. New Statesman, 31 October 2005
Jump up ^ "School adopts 'hoodie' as uniform". BBC. 2005-05-19.
Jump up ^ "Shop regrets 'hoodie' humiliation". BBC. 2006-02-21.
Jump up ^ "Cameron 'hoodie' speech in full". BBC. 2006-07-10.
Jump up ^ "Cameron defends 'hoodie' speech". BBC. 2006-07-10.
Jump up ^ "Girl, 4, asked to remove 'hoodie'". BBC News. 2007-09-07. Retrieved 2010-05-04.
Jump up ^ Zara Phillips, Musto clothing
Jump up ^ Hoodies Hailed As Defining Fashion Trend The Huffington Post (28 January 2010). Retrieved on 12-28-10.
Jump up ^ Jonsson, Patrik (6 July 2013). "George Zimmerman prosecution leaves jury to untangle lies and justification". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on 23 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Geraldo Rivera: 'Leave the Hoodie At Home' Fox News Channel via Talking Points Memo (23 March 2012)
Jump up ^ Geraldo Rivera apologizes for 'hoodie' comment Politico (27 March 2012). Retrieved on 03-28-12.
Jump up ^ Taulli, Tom (15 May 2012). "Mark Zuckerberg: The Power of the Hoodie". Forbes. Retrieved 3 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "Oklahoma lawmakers considering ban on wearing hoodies in public". ABA Journal online. January 8, 2015. Retrieved January 12, 2015.
External links[edit]
Wikiversity has learning materials about Multipurpose clothing
Look up Hoodie in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Media related to Hoodies at Wikimedia Commons
[hide] v t e
Clothing
Historical clothing • Traditional and national clothing
Tops
Blouse Cardigan Crop top Dress shirt Guayabera Guernsey Halterneck Henley shirt Hoodie Jersey Polo shirt Shirt Sleeveless shirt Sweater Sweater vest T-shirt Tube top Turtleneck Twinset
Trousers
Bell-bottoms Bermuda shorts Bondage pants Capri pants Cargo pants Chaps Cycling shorts Dress pants High water pants Lowrise pants Jeans Jodhpurs Leggings Overall Palazzo pants Parachute pants Pedal pushers Phat pants Shorts Slim-fit pants Sweatpants Windpants Yoga pants
Skirts
A-line skirt Ballerina skirt Denim skirt Men's skirts Miniskirt Pencil skirt Prairie skirt Rah-rah skirt Sarong Skort Tutu Wrap
Dresses
Ball gown Bouffant gown Coatdress Cocktail dress Débutante dress Formal wear Frock Evening gown Gown House dress Jumper Little black dress Princess line Sheath dress Shirtdress Slip dress Strapless dress Sundress Wedding dress Wrap dress
Suits and
uniforms
Academic dress Ball dress Black tie Boilersuit Cleanroom suit Clerical clothing Court dress Gymslip Jumpsuit Kasaya Lab coat Military uniform Morning dress Onesie Pantsuit Red Sea rig Romper suit School uniform Scrubs Stroller Tuxedo Vestment White tie
Outerwear
Apron Blazer British Warm Cagoule Cape Chesterfield Coat Covert coat Cut-off Duffel coat Flight jacket Gilet Goggle jacket Guards coat Harrington jacket Hoodie Jacket Jerkin Leather jacket Mess jacket Opera coat Overcoat Parka Paletot Pea coat Poncho Raincoat Robe Safari jacket Shawl Shrug Ski suit Sleeved blanket Smoking jacket Sport coat Trench coat Ulster coat Waistcoat Windbreaker
Underwear
(lingerie)
Top
Bra Camisole Undershirt
Bottom
Diaper Panties Plastic pants Slip Thong Underpants Boxer briefs Boxer shorts Midway briefs Briefs
Full
Adult bodysuit Infant bodysuit Long underwear Playsuit Teddy
Footwear
Athletic shoe Boot Court shoe Dress shoe Flip-flops Hosiery Sandal Shoe Spats Slipper Sock Stocking
Headwear
Baseball cap Beret Cap Fedora Hat Helmet Hood Knit cap Toque Turban Veil
Nightwear
Babydoll Blanket sleeper Negligee Nightgown Nightshirt Pajamas
Swimwear
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Accessories
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See also
Clothing technology Clothing terminology Costume Cross-dressing Dress code Fashion History of clothing
Categories: Tops (clothing)Hip hop fashionSweatersPunk fashion1990s fashion2000s fashion2010s fashion
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This page was last modified on 14 December 2016, at 18:03.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Hoodie (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A male wearing a customized pullover hoodie.
A hoodie (also called a hooded sweatshirt or hoody) is a sweatshirt with a hood. Hoodies often include a muff sewn onto the lower front, and (usually) a drawstring to adjust the hood opening.
Contents [hide]
1History
1.1Australia
1.2Canada
1.3New Zealand
1.4United Kingdom
1.5United States
2See also
3References
4External links
History[edit]
Boy wearing a hoodie
Hood, from Anglo-Saxon word, hod, in 13th century.
Hood in the 12th century
Hoodies have been a documented part of men's and women's wear for centuries. The word "hood" is said to come from the Anglo-Saxon word "h?d".[1] The garment's style and form can be traced back to Medieval Europe when the normal clothing for monks included a hood called a cowl attached to a tunic or robes,[2] and a chaperon or hooded cape was very commonly worn by any outdoors worker. Its appearance was known in England at least as early as the 12th century, possibly an import with the Norman conquest of England.[1] The hooded sweatshirt was first produced in the United States starting in the 1930s. The modern clothing style was first produced by Champion in the 1930s and marketed to laborers working in freezing temperatures in upstate New York.[3] The term hoodie entered popular usage in the 1990s.[4]
The hoodie took off in the 1970s, with several factors contributing to its success. Hip hop culture developed in New York City around this time, and high fashion also contributed during this era, as Norma Kamali and other high-profile designers embraced and glamorized the new clothing.[2] Most critical to the hoodie's popularity during this time was its iconic appearance in the blockbuster Rocky film.[citation needed] The rise of hoodies with university logos began around this time.[citation needed]
By the 1990s, the hoodie had evolved into a symbol of isolation,[citation needed] a statement of academic spirit,[citation needed] and several fashion collections.[5] The association with chavs or neds in the UK developed around this time, as their popularity rose with that specific demographic.[citation needed] Young men, often skateboarders or surfers, sported the hoodie and spread the trend across the western United States, most significantly in California.[citation needed] Tommy Hilfiger, Giorgio Armani, and Ralph Lauren, for example, used the hoodie as the primary component for many of their collections in the 1990s.[2][3] A crystal-studded hoodie made by rapper Sean "Diddy" Combs was acquired by the Victoria & Albert Museum in London.[6]
Australia[edit]
In June 2011, police in Wynnum, Brisbane, launched a "Hoodie Free Zone" initiative, with shopkeepers encouraged to ask hoodie-wearers to leave. The zone is part of an initiative to educate businesses on how they can avoid armed robberies, in which the clothing is often worn.[7]
Canada[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Across Canada, hoodies are a popular clothing item—they are sometimes worn under a coat or jacket to provide an extra layer of clothing during the winter. In the province of Saskatchewan, hoodies are often referred to as "bunny-hugs."
New Zealand[edit]
The "Hoodies on Parliament - politicians challenge youth stereotypes" campaign was launched in May 2008 in New Zealand (NZ) as part of the annual national Youth Week event, a pro-youth initiative organized to challenge youth stereotypes. To launch the campaign, NZ politicians, including National MP Nicky Wagner, Green Party MPs Sue Bradford, Nandor Tanczos and Metiria Turei, and Maori party MP Hone Harawira, wore hoodies while standing on the steps of the country's parliament. Archbishop David Moxon, Archbishop of the Anglican Dioceses, and Brian Turner President of the Methodist Church of NZ also participated in the campaign.[8]
Support and criticism were raised by politicians, who were divided over the 2008 event.[9][10] One strong response was drawn from a local government council member, Dale Evans, who donned a Ku Klux Klan outfit in protest, citing the hoodie as "not an appropriate article of clothing to celebrate."[11]
"Goodie in a Hoodie" day was then run in 2009 by New Zealand Adolescent Health and Development (NZAAHD) in partnership with Age Concern—the organisations used the campaign to highlight the stereotypes that both young people and the elderly face in New Zealand. Liz Baxendine, president of Age Concern at the time, said to the media:
Older people and young people have a lot in common. We both face stereotypes based on our age rather than our real achievements and outlook on life ... we've got to destigmatise the hoodie and see it for what it is. Everyone wears them. We need to take the hoodie back![12]
United Kingdom[edit]
"No hoodies" sign outside a pub in South London
In the UK, hoodies have been the subject of much criticism; some shoplifters have used the hood to conceal their identities from CCTV cameras in shopping centres.[13] The hoodie became a popular clothing item by the 1990s. During the 21st century, it had gained a negative image, being associated with trouble making teens and anti-social behaviour. It became one of the later items associated with "chavs", or Neds.
Angela McRobbie, professor of communications at Goldsmiths College in the UK, says the appeal of the hoodie is because of its promise of anonymity, mystery and anxiety. "The point of origin is obviously black American hip-hop culture, now thoroughly mainstream and a key part of the global economy. Leisure and sportswear adopted for everyday wear suggests a distance from the world of office suit or school uniform. Rap culture celebrates defiance, as it narrates the experience of social exclusion. Musically and stylistically, it projects menace and danger as well as anger and rage. The hooded top is one in a long line of garments chosen by young people, usually boys, to which are ascribed meanings suggesting that they are 'up to no good'. In the past, such appropriation was usually restricted to membership of specific youth cultures - leather jackets, bondage trousers - but nowadays it is the norm among young people to flag up their music and cultural preferences in this way, hence the adoption of the hoodie by boys across the boundaries of age, ethnicity and class."[14]
In May 2005, Bluewater shopping centre in Kent caused outrage by launching a code of conduct which bans its shoppers from sporting hoodies or baseball caps, although the garments remain on sale. John Prescott welcomed the move, stating that he had felt threatened by the presence of hooded teenagers at a motorway service station.[14] Then-Prime Minister Tony Blair openly supported this stance and vowed to clamp down on the anti-social behaviour with which hoodie wearers are sometimes associated. London-based rapper Lady Sovereign published a single titled "Hoodie" in protest as part of a "Save the Hoodie" campaign.[15]
In 2005, Coombeshead College in the south-west of England allowed the hoodie to become part of the boys' school uniform, but the hood could be put up only when it rained. The principal, Richard Haigh, stated that the move would help to calm some of what he called the "hysteria" surrounding the garment.[16]
The JCB Academy allows hoodies, but only a navy blue type sold in the school shop.
In February 2006, a 58-year-old teacher who was wearing a hooded top was asked to remove it when entering a Tesco store in Swindon. According to the teacher, she was wearing the hood because "my hair's a mess". The store did not have a hoodie policy. The shop apologized and said it was taking action to "make sure this doesn't happen again."[17]
In July 2006, David Cameron, leader of the Conservative Party, made a speech suggesting that the hoodie was worn more for defensive than offensive purposes.[18] The speech was referred to as "hug a hoodie" by the Labour Party.[19][20]
Despite the controversy, the hoodie has been embraced by people from all backgrounds. Zara Phillips, a member of the British royal family, has included hoodies in her range of equestrian clothing at Musto.[21]
In recent years in England many older people have been seen wearing hoodies, particularly in cold weather.
United States[edit]
1980s FBI sketch of Unabomber Ted Kaczynski
Throughout the U.S., it is common for middle school, high school, and college students to wear sweatshirts—with or without hoods—that display their respective school names or mascots across the chest, either as part of a uniform or personal preference.[citation needed] Hoodies have become mainstream fashion in the U.S., transcending the clothing item's original utilitarian purpose,[22] similar to jeans. This has found its way into a variety of styles, even so far as to be worn under a suit jacket.[citation needed]
The hooded sweatshirt is a utilitarian garment that originated in the 1930s for workers in cold New York warehouses.[6] Hoodies were later adopted by hip hop culture as a symbol of what one reporter termed "cool anonymity and vague menace."[6] When the garment was depicted in FBI composite drawings of Unabomber Ted Kaczynski, the hoodie became linked to "seedy threatening criminality," thereby further asserting its non-mainstream symbolism.[6]
In 2012 Trayvon Martin was shot in a hoodie, and protests over his death involved hoodies.[6][23] Fox News host Geraldo Rivera encouraged young people of color to stop wearing hoodies[24] though he later apologized for his comments.[25]
Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg often wears a plain grey hoodie rather than a business suit, drawing comment during his company's 2012 initial public offering.[26]
In 2015, Oklahoma state representative Don Barrington proposed a bill to criminalize wearing a "robe, mask or other disguise" in public that would "intentionally conceal the wearer's identity", which was criticized as an attempt to criminalize the wearing of the hoodie.[27]
See also[edit]
Fashion portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hoodies.
Baja jacket
Cardigan (sweater)
Goggle jacket
Parka
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b A Cyclopaedia of Costume Or Dictionary of Dress, Including Notices of ...
^ Jump up to: a b c Yusuf, Nilgin (2006-08-12). "The hoody grows up". Times Online. London. Retrieved 2007-06-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Wilson, Denis (2006-12-23). "A Look Under the Hoodie". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-06-28.
Jump up ^ "hoodie | hoody, n.". OED Online. November 2010. Oxford University Press. Accessed 11 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Richards, Chloe. "Fashion Hoodies". Idol. London.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Koehn, Donna (24 March 2012). "Hoodie becomes symbol of injustice". The Tampa Tribune. Archived from the original on 23 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Hood-free zones in Brisbane west". AAP. 28 June 2011. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011.
Jump up ^ "Hoodies on Parliament challenging youth stereotype". Scoop. 29 May 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Politicians support Hoodie Day". TVNZ. TVNZ.co.nz. 30 May 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Tait, Maggie (26 May 2008). "Youth Week Hoodie Day criticised". The New Zealand Herald. NZPA. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "Councillor stuns board with Ku Klux Klan outfit". The New Zealand Herald. 30 May 2008. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Kathryn King (12 August 2009). "Oldies but hoodies". Wanganui Chronicle. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
Jump up ^ McLean, Gareth (2005-05-13). "In the hood". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2010-05-04.
^ Jump up to: a b McLean, Gareth (2005-05-13). "In the hood". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2010-05-04.
Jump up ^ Dan Hancox: Observations on style. New Statesman, 31 October 2005
Jump up ^ "School adopts 'hoodie' as uniform". BBC. 2005-05-19.
Jump up ^ "Shop regrets 'hoodie' humiliation". BBC. 2006-02-21.
Jump up ^ "Cameron 'hoodie' speech in full". BBC. 2006-07-10.
Jump up ^ "Cameron defends 'hoodie' speech". BBC. 2006-07-10.
Jump up ^ "Girl, 4, asked to remove 'hoodie'". BBC News. 2007-09-07. Retrieved 2010-05-04.
Jump up ^ Zara Phillips, Musto clothing
Jump up ^ Hoodies Hailed As Defining Fashion Trend The Huffington Post (28 January 2010). Retrieved on 12-28-10.
Jump up ^ Jonsson, Patrik (6 July 2013). "George Zimmerman prosecution leaves jury to untangle lies and justification". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on 23 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Geraldo Rivera: 'Leave the Hoodie At Home' Fox News Channel via Talking Points Memo (23 March 2012)
Jump up ^ Geraldo Rivera apologizes for 'hoodie' comment Politico (27 March 2012). Retrieved on 03-28-12.
Jump up ^ Taulli, Tom (15 May 2012). "Mark Zuckerberg: The Power of the Hoodie". Forbes. Retrieved 3 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "Oklahoma lawmakers considering ban on wearing hoodies in public". ABA Journal online. January 8, 2015. Retrieved January 12, 2015.
External links[edit]
Wikiversity has learning materials about Multipurpose clothing
Look up Hoodie in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Media related to Hoodies at Wikimedia Commons
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Dishwasher
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the appliance. For manual dishwashing, see dishwashing. For the video game of the same name, see The Dishwasher: Dead Samurai.
[hide]This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
This article possibly contains original research. (October 2016)
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A dishwasher containing clean dishes
An open dishwasher
A dishwasher is a mechanical device for cleaning dishware and cutlery. Unlike manual dishwashing, which relies largely on physical scrubbing to remove soiling, the mechanical dishwasher cleans by spraying hot water, typically between 45 and 75 °C (110 and 170 °F), at the dishes, with lower temperatures used for delicate items.[1]
A mix of water and detergent is pumped to one or more rotating spray arms, which blast the dishes with the cleaning mixture. Once the wash is finished, the water is drained, more hot water is pumped in and a rinse cycle begins. After the rinse cycle finishes and the water is drained, the dishes are dried using one of several drying methods. Typically a rinse aid is used to eliminate water spots for streak-free dishes and glassware resulting from hard water or other reasons.[2]
In addition to domestic units, industrial dishwashers are available for use in commercial establishments such as hotels and restaurants, where a large number of dishes must be cleaned. Washing is conducted with temperatures of 65–71 °C (149–160 °F) and sanitation is achieved by either the use of a booster heater that will provide a 82 °C (180 °F) "final rinse" temperature or through the use of a chemical sanitizer.
Contents [hide]
1History
2Design
2.1Size and capacity
2.2Layout
2.3Washing elements
2.4Features
3Process
3.1Drying
4Cleaning agents
4.1Detergent
4.2Rinse aid
4.3Dishwasher salt
5Effects on crockery
5.1Glassware
5.2Unsuitable items
6Efficiency
7Adoption
7.1Commercial use
8Environmental impact
9Alternative uses
10See also
11References
12External links
History[edit]
A hand-powered dishwasher and an early electric dishwasher both from about 1917.
The first reports of a mechanical dishwashing device are of an 1850 patent in the United States by Joel Houghton for a hand-powered wood device. This device was made of wood and was cranked by hand while water sprayed onto the dishes. This device was both slow and unreliable. Another patent was granted to L.A. Alexander in 1865 that was similar to the first but featured a hand-cranked rack system. Neither device was practical or widely accepted.
The first reliable hand-powered dishwasher was invented in 1887 by Josephine Cochrane with the help of George Butters and was unveiled at the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago, Illinois. Cochrane's inspiration was her frustration at the damage to her good china that occurred when her servants handled it during cleaning.[3]
Advertisement in an 1896 issue of McClure's for The Faultless Quaker Dishwasher.
Europe's first domestic dishwasher with an electric motor was invented and manufactured by Miele in 1929.[4][5]
In the United Kingdom, William Howard Livens invented a small, non-electric dishwasher suitable for domestic use in 1924. It was the first dishwasher that incorporated most of the design elements that are featured in the models of today;[6] it included a front door for loading, a wire rack to hold the dirty crockery and a rotating sprayer. Drying elements were even added to his design in 1940. It was the first machine suitable for domestic use, and it came at a time when permanent plumbing and running water in the house was becoming increasingly common.[7][8]
Despite this, Liven's design did not become a commercial success, and dishwashers were only successfully sold as domestic utilities in the postwar boom of the 1950s, albeit only to the wealthy. Initially dishwashers were sold as standalone or portable devices, but with the development of the wall-to-wall countertop and standardized height cabinets, dishwashers began to be marketed with standardized sizes and shapes, integrated underneath the kitchen countertop as a modular unit with other kitchen appliances.
By the 1970s dishwashers had become commonplace in domestic residences in North America and Western Europe. By 2012, over 75 percent of homes in the US and Germany had dishwashers.[9]
Design[edit]
Size and capacity[edit]
North American counter-top dishwasher
Dishwashers that are installed into standard kitchen cabinets have a standard width and depth of 60 cm (Europe) or 24 inches (US), and most dishwashers must be installed into a hole a minimum of 86 cm (Europe) or 34 inches (US) tall. Portable dishwashers exist in 45 and 60 cm (Europe) or 18 and 24 inch (US) widths, with casters and attached countertops. Dishwashers may come in standard or tall tub designs; standard tub dishwashers have a service kickplate beneath the dishwasher door that allows for simpler maintenance and installation, but tall tub dishwashers have approximately 20% more capacity and better sound dampening from having a continuous front door.
The international standard for the capacity of a dishwasher is expressed as standard place settings. Commercial dishwashers are rated as plates per hour. The rating is based on standard sized plates of the same size. The same can be said for commercial glass washers, as they are based on standard glasses, normally pint glasses.
Layout[edit]
Present-day machines feature a drop-down front panel door, allowing access to the interior, which usually contains two or sometimes three pull-out racks; racks can also be referred to as "baskets". In older U.S. models from the 1950s, the entire tub rolled out when the machine latch was opened, and loading/removing washable items was from the top, with the user reaching deep into the compartment for some items. Youngstown Kitchens, which manufactured entire kitchen cabinets and sinks, offered a tub-style dishwasher, which was coupled to a conventional kitchen sink as one unit.
Today, "dish drawer" models mimic this style, while the half-depth design eliminates the inconvenience of the long reach that was necessary with older full-depth models. "Cutlery baskets" are also common. A drawer dishwasher, first introduced by Fisher & Paykel in 1997, is a variant of the dishwasher in which the baskets slide out with the door in the same manner as a drawer filing cabinet, with each drawer in a double-drawer model being able to operate independently of the other.
The inside of a dishwasher in the North American market is either stainless steel or plastic. Stainless steel tubs resist hard water, provide better sound damping, and preserve heat to dry dishes more quickly. They also come at a premium price. Older models used baked enamel on steel and are prone to chipping and erosion; chips in the baked enamel finish must be cleaned of all dirt and corrosion then patched with a special compound or even a good quality two-part epoxy. All European-made dishwashers feature a stainless steel interior as standard, even on low end models. The same is true for a built-in water softener.
Washing elements[edit]
The flutes (or valve meters) of the dishwasher are prevalent in American models (with some appearing in European and Asian models influenced by US design) due to the higher pressure of the American water system (which averages at 90 torrs/min, as opposed to the 65 torrs/min pressure in other countries). The flutes help drain the excess water, preventing entropy within the system due to higher pressures at a lower volume. This is a removable fixture, as some areas require a higher or lower discharge based on their water system.
European dishwashers almost universally use two or three spray arms which are fed from the bottom and back wall of the dishwasher leaving both racks unimpeded and also such models tend to use inline water heaters, removing the need for exposed elements in the base of the machine that can melt plastic items near to them. Many North American dishwashers tend to use more basic and old fashioned water distribution and exposed elements in the base of the dishwasher. Some North American machines use a large cone or similar structure in the bottom dish rack to prevent placement of dishes in the center of the rack. The dishwasher directs water from the bottom of the dishwasher up through this structure to the upper wash arm to spray water on the top dish rack. Some dishwashers, including many models from Whirlpool and Kitchenaid, use a tube attached to the top rack that connects to a water source at the back of the dishwasher, which allows full use of the bottom rack. Late-model Frigidaire dishwashers shoot a jet of water from the top of the washer down into the upper wash arm, again allowing full use of the bottom rack (but requiring that a small funnel on the top rack be kept clear).
Features[edit]
File:Geschirrspuelertv.ogg
Clear model of a running dishwasher
Mid-to-higher end North American dishwashers often come with hard food disposal units, which behave like miniature garbage (waste) disposal units that eliminate large pieces of food waste from the wash water. One manufacturer that is known for omitting hard food disposals is Bosch, a German brand; however, Bosch does so in order to reduce noise. If the larger items of food waste are removed before placing in the dishwasher, pre-rinsing is not necessary even without integrated waste disposal units.
Many new dishwashers feature microprocessor-controlled, sensor-assisted wash cycles that adjust the wash duration to the quantity of dirty dishes (sensed by changes in water temperature) or the amount of dirt in the rinse water (sensed chemically/optically). This can save water and energy if the user runs a partial load. In such dishwashers the electromechanical rotary switch often used to control the washing cycle is replaced by a microprocessor but most sensors and valves are still required to be present. However, pressure switches (some dishwashers use a pressure switch and flow meter) are not required in most microprocessor controlled dishwashers as they use the motor and sometimes a rotational position sensor to sense the resistance of water; when it senses there is no cavitation it knows it has the optimal amount of water. A bimetal switch or wax motor opens the detergent door during the wash cycle.
Some dishwashers include a child-lockout feature to prevent accidental starting or stopping of the wash cycle by children. A child lock can sometimes be included to prevent young children opening the door during a wash cycle. This prevents accidents with hot water and strong detergents used during the wash cycle.
Process[edit]
Drying[edit]
The heat inside the dishwasher dries the contents after the final hot rinse; the final rinse adds a small amount of rinse aid to the hot water, as this improves drying significantly. Plastic and non-stick items may not dry properly compared to china and glass, which hold the heat better. Some dishwashers incorporate a fan to improve drying. Older dishwashers with a visible heating element (at the bottom of the wash cabinet, below the bottom basket) may use the heating element to improve drying; however, this uses more energy.
North American dishwashers tend to use heat-assisted drying via an exposed element. European machines and some high end North American machines use passive methods for drying – a stainless steel interior helps this process and some models use heat exchange technology between the inner and outer skin of the machine to cool the walls of the interior and speed up drying. Most dishwashers feature a drying sensor and as such, a dish-washing cycle is always considered complete when a drying indicator, usually in the form of an illuminated "end" light, or in more modern models on a digital display or audible sound, exhibits to the operator that the washing and drying cycle is now over.
Governmental agencies often recommend air-drying dishes by either disabling or stopping the drying cycle to save energy.[10]
Cleaning agents[edit]
Detergent[edit]
A detergent tablet
Different kinds of dishwashing detergent contain different combinations of ingredients. Common ingredients include:
Phosphates
Bind calcium and magnesium ions to prevent 'hard-water' type limescale deposits. They can cause ecological damage, so their use is starting to be phased out. Phosphate-free detergents are sold as eco-friendly detergents.
Oxygen-based bleaching agents (older-style powders and liquids contain chlorine-based bleaching agents)
Break up and bleach organic deposits.
Non-ionic surfactants
Lower the surface tension of the water, emulsifies oil, lipid and fat food deposits, prevents droplet spotting on drying.
Alkaline salts
These are a primary component, in older and original-style dishwasher detergent powders[citation needed] . Highly alkaline salts attack and dissolve grease, but are extremely corrosive (fatal) if swallowed. Salts used may include metasilicates, alkali metal hydroxides, Sodium carbonate etc.[11]
Enzymes
Break up protein-based food deposits, and possibly oil, lipid and fat deposits. Proteases do this by breaking down the proteins into smaller peptides that are more easily washed away[citation needed] .
Anti-corrosion agent(s)
Often sodium silicate, this prevents corrosion of dishwasher components[citation needed] .
Dishwashing detergent may also contain[citation needed] :
Anti-foaming agents
Foam interferes with the washing action.
Additives to slow down the removal of glaze & patterns from glazed ceramics
Perfumes
Anti-caking agents (in granular detergent)
Starches (in tablet based detergents)
Gelling agents (in liquid/gel based detergents)
Sand (inexpensive powdered detergents)
Dishwasher detergents are strongly alkaline (basic).
Inexpensive powders may contain sand, which can be verified by dissolving the powder in boiling water and then passing the solution through a coffee filter. Such detergents may harm the dishes and the dishwasher. Powdered detergents are more likely to cause fading on china patterns.[12]
Besides older style detergents for dishwashers, biodegradable detergents also exist for dishwashers. These detergents may be more environmentally friendly than conventional detergents.
Hand-washing dish detergent (washing up liquid) creates a large foam of bubbles which will leak from the dishwasher.
Rinse aid[edit]
Rinse aid (sometimes called rinse agent) contains surfactants and uses Marangoni stress to prevent droplet formation, so that water drains from the surfaces in thin sheets, rather than forming droplets.[citation needed]
The benefits of using it are that it prevents "spotting" on glassware (caused by droplets of water drying and leaving behind dissolved limescale minerals), and can also improve drying performance as there is less water remaining to be dried. A thinner sheet of water also has a much larger surface-area than a droplet of the same volume, which increases the likelihood of water molecules evaporating.[13]
Dishwasher salt[edit]
Main article: Dishwasher salt
In some countries, especially those in Europe, dishwashers include a built-in water softener that removes calcium and magnesium ions from the water. Dishwasher salt, which is coarse-grained sodium chloride (table salt), is used to recharge the resin in the built-in ion-exchange system. The coarse grains prevent it from clogging the softener unit; unlike certain types of salt used for culinary purposes, it does not contain added insoluble anticaking agents or magnesium salts. The presence of magnesium salts will defeat the purpose of removing magnesium from the water softener. Anticaking agents may lead to clogging or may contain magnesium. Table salt may contain added iodine in the form of sodium iodide or potassium iodide. These compounds will not affect the ion-exchange system, but adding table salt to the dishwasher's water softening unit can damage it.
If a dishwasher has a built-in water softener there will be a special compartment inside the dishwasher where the salt is to be added when needed. This salt compartment is separate from the detergent compartment, and generally located at the bottom of the wash cabinet (this is below the bottom basket). On most dishwashers, an automatic sensing system will notify the user when more dishwasher salt is required.
If the dishwasher has run out of the salt that recharges the ion exchange resin that softens the water, and the water supply is "hard", limescale deposits can appear on all items, but are especially visible on glassware.
Effects on crockery[edit]
Glassware[edit]
Glassware washed by dishwashing machines can develop a white haze on the surface over time. This may be caused by any or all of the below processes, only one of which is reversible:
Silicate filming, etching, and accelerated crack corrosion
This film starts as an iridescence or "oil-film" effect on glassware, and progresses into a "milky" or "cloudy" appearance (which is not a deposit) that cannot be polished off or removed like limescale. It is formed because the detergent is strongly alkaline (basic) and glass dissolves slowly in alkaline aqueous solution. It becomes less soluble in the presence of silicates in the water (added as anti-metal-corrosion agents in the dishwasher detergent). Since the cloudy appearance is due to nonuniform glass dissolution, it is (somewhat paradoxically) less marked if dissolution is higher, i.e. if a silicate-free detergent is used; also, in certain cases, the etching will primarily be seen in areas that have microscopic surface cracks as a result of the items' manufacturing.[14][15] Limitation of this undesirable reaction is possible by controlling water hardness, detergent load and temperature. The type of glass is an important factor in determining if this effect is a problem. Some dishwashers can reduce this etching effect by automatically dispensing the correct amount of detergent throughout the wash cycle based on the level of water hardness programmed.
Devitrification
Components found in dishwasher detergents can chemically scour the glass, causing tiny crystals, which can precipitate further crystal growth that can turn entire glasses cloudy[16]
Unsuitable items[edit]
This section contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to content or by moving it to Wikiversity, Wikibooks or Wikivoyage. (November 2016)
Lead crystal should not be cleaned in a dishwasher as the corrosive effect of dishwasher detergent is high on such types of glass – that is, it will quickly go 'cloudy'. In addition, the lead in the crystal glass can be converted into a soluble form, which could endanger the health of subsequent users.[17] Some items can be damaged if washed in a dishwasher because of the effects of the chemicals and hot water. Aluminium items will discolor. Saucepan manufacturers often recommend handwashing due to the harsh effects of the chemicals on the pan coatings. Valuable items, such as antiques or hand-painted items, should only be washed manually as they may be dulled or damaged, and detergents will gradually fade the glazing and print. Sterling silver and pewter will oxidize and discolour from the heat. Furthermore, pewter has a low melting point and may warp in some dishwashers.
Items soiled by wax, cigarette ash or anything which might contaminate the rest of the wash load (such as poisons or mineral oils) should be washed by hand. Objects contaminated by solvents may explode in a dishwasher. Glued items, such as some cutlery handles or wooden cutting boards, may be melted or softened if put in a dishwasher, especially on a hot wash cycle when temperatures can reach 75 °C (167 °F); these high temperatures can also damage plastic items which are designated as only being washed by hand. Some plastic items can be distorted or melted if placed in the bottom rack too close to an exposed heating element; therefore, most dishwasher-safe plastic items recommend placing in the top rack only (many newer dishwashers have a concealed heating element away from the bottom rack entirely). Squeezing plastic items into small spaces may cause the plastic to distort in shape.
Dishwashers should only be used to wash normal household items, such as plates, cutlery, cups, mugs, kitchenware etc. Items such as paintbrushes, tools, furnace filters etc. should not be put into a dishwasher as this will cause the subsequent washes to become contaminated and may cause damage to the appliance.
Knives and other cooking tools that are made of carbon steel, semi-stainless steels like D2 or specialized, highly hardened cutlery steels like ZDP189 should also not be placed into a dishwasher, as these steels are not corrosion resistant or far less corrosion resistant than the austenitic stainless steels used for cookware. Also, very sharp edges can become dulled or damaged from colliding with other items and/or thermal stress from the washing cycles, and can pose an injury hazard if another person unloading the dishwasher does not expect such items in the dishwasher. Ceramic edges are very brittle and can take damage from collision with dishwasher parts or other contents.
Cast iron cookware is normally seasoned with oil or grease and heat, which causes the oil or grease to be absorbed into the pores of the cookware, thereby giving a smooth relatively non-stick cooking surface. Such cookware should not be washed in a dishwasher as the combination of alkali based detergent and hot water will strip off this cooking surface, requiring reseasoning before the item may once again be used.
Efficiency[edit]
In the European Union, the energy consumption of a dishwasher for a standard usage is shown on a European Union energy label. In the United States, the energy consumption of a dishwasher is defined using the energy factor.
Most consumer dishwashers use a 75 °C (167 °F) thermostat in the sanitizing process. During the final rinse cycle, the heating element and wash pump are turned on, and the cycle timer (electronic or electromechanical) is stopped until the thermostat is tripped. At this point, the cycle timer resumes and will generally trigger a drain cycle within a few timer increments.
Most consumer dishwashers use 75 °C (167 °F) rather than 83 °C (181 °F) for reasons of burn risk, energy and water consumption, total cycle time, and possible damage to plastic items placed inside the dishwasher. With new advances in detergents, lower water temperatures (50–55 °C / 122–131 °F) are needed to prevent premature decay of the enzymes used to eat the grease and other build-ups on the dishes.
In the US, residential dishwashers can be certified to a NSF International testing protocol which confirms the cleaning and sanitation performance of the unit.[18]
A 2009 study showed that the microwave and the dishwasher were both effective ways to clean domestic sponges.[19]
Adoption[edit]
Commercial use[edit]
A commercial dishwasher
A Hobart commercial dishwasher
Large heavy-duty dishwashers are available for use in commercial establishments (e.g. hotels, restaurants) where a large number of dishes must be cleaned.
Unlike a residential dishwasher, a commercial dishwasher does not utilize a drying cycle (commercial drying is achieved by heated ware meeting open air once the wash/rinse/sanitation cycles have been completed) and thus are significantly faster than their residential counterparts. Washing is conducted with 65–71 °C / 150–160 °F temperatures and sanitation is achieved by either the use of a booster heater that will provide the machine 82 °C / 180 °F "final rinse" temperature or through the use of a chemical sanitizer. This distinction labels the machines as either "high-temp" or "low-temp".
Some commercial dishwashers work similarly to a commercial car wash, with a pulley system that pulls the rack through a small chamber (known widely as a "rack conveyor" systems). Single-rack washers require an operator to push the rack into the washer, close the doors, start the cycle, and then open the doors to pull out the cleaned rack, possibly through a second opening into an unloading area.
In the UK, the British Standards Institution set standards for dishwashers. In the US, NSF International (an independent not-for-profit organization) sets the standards for wash and rinse time along with minimum water temperature for chemical or hot water sanitizing methods.[20] There are many types of commercial dishwashers including under counter, single tank, conveyor, flight type, and carousel machines.
Commercial dishwashers often have significantly different plumbing and operations than a home unit, in that there are often separate spray arms for washing and rinsing/sanitizing. The wash water is heated with an in-tank electric heat element and mixed with a cleaning solution, and is used repeatedly from one load to the next. The wash tank usually has a large strainer basket to collect food debris, and the strainer may not be emptied until the end of the day's kitchen operations.
Water used for rinsing and sanitizing is generally delivered directly through building water supply, and is not reusable. The used rinse water falls into the wash tank reservoir, which dilutes some of the used wash water and causes a small amount to drain out through an overflow tube. The system may first rinse with pure water only, and then sanitize with an additive solution that is left on the dishes as they leave the washer to dry.
Additional soap is periodically added to the main wash water tank, from either large soap concentrate tanks or dissolved from a large solid soap block, to maintain wash water cleaning effectiveness.
Environmental impact[edit]
Comparing the efficiency of automatic dishwashers and hand-washing of dishes is difficult because hand-washing techniques vary drastically by individual. According to a peer-reviewed study in 2003, hand washing and drying of an amount of dishes equivalent to a fully loaded automatic dishwasher (no cookware or bakeware) could use between 20–300 litres (5.3–79.3 US gal) of water and between 0.1 and 8 kWh of energy, while the numbers for energy-efficient automatic dishwashers were 15–22 litres (4.0–5.8 US gal) and 1 to 2 kWh, respectively. The study concluded that fully loaded dishwashers use less energy, water, and detergent than the average European hand-washer.[21][22] For the automatic dishwasher results, the dishes were not rinsed before being loaded. The study does not address costs associated with the manufacture and disposal of dishwashers, the cost of possible accelerated wear of dishes from the chemical harshness of dishwasher detergent, the comparison for cleaning cookware, or the value of labour saved; hand washers needed between 65 and 106 minutes. Several points of criticism on this study have been raised.[23] For example, kilowatt hours of electricity were compared against energy used for heating hot water without taking into account possible inefficiencies. Also, inefficient human washers were compared against optimal usage of a fully loaded dishwasher without manual pre-rinsing that can take up to 100 litres (26 US gal) of water.[24]
Most dishwasher detergent contains complex phosphates, as they have several properties that aid in effective cleaning. However, the same chemicals have been removed from laundry detergents in many countries as a result of concerns raised about the increase in algal blooms in waterways caused by increasing phosphate levels (see eutrophication). 17 US states have partial or full bans on the use of phosphates in dish detergent,[25] and 2 US states Maryland and New York ban phosphates in commercial dishwashing. Detergent companies claimed it is not cost effective to make separate batches of detergent for the states with phosphate bans (although detergents are typically formulated for local markets), and so most have voluntarily removed phosphates from all dishwasher detergents.[26]
In addition, rinse aids have contained nonylphenol and nonylphenol ethoxylates. These have been banned in the European Union by EU Directive 76/769/EEC.
Alternative uses[edit]
Dishwashers can be used to cook certain foods, in particular salmon.[27][28][29][30]
See also[edit]
Home appliance
Washing machine#Manufacturers and brands
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Özçevik, Ö; Brebbia, C. A.; ?ener, S. M. (2015-05-19). Sustainable Development and Planning VII. WIT Press. p. 794. ISBN 9781845649241.
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Jump up ^ Tina Gant (30 September 2003). International Directory of Company Histories. St. James Press. ISBN 978-1-55862-486-3.
Jump up ^ < "Made in the UK: The life-changing everyday innovations which put British genius on the map".
Jump up ^ "Archive Gallery: Kitchens of the Incredible 1950s Future". Popular Science. Retrieved 27 October 2014.
Jump up ^ William Howard Livens (1924-10-23). "Improvements in apparatus for washing household crockery and the like". FR579765. UK Intellectual Property Office. Retrieved 2008-03-04.
Jump up ^ "The History of the Dishwasher". Yellow Advertiser. Retrieved 2013-11-02.
Jump up ^ "Top 10 Tips for Renters : ENERGY STAR". Energystar.gov. Retrieved 2012-06-20.
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Jump up ^ Sharma, Anju; Jain, Himanshu; Carnali, Joseph O.; Lugo, Guillermo Manuel (2003). "Influence of the Manufacturing Process on Corrosion Behavior of Soda-Lime-Silicate Glassware". Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 86 (10): 1669–1676. doi:10.1111/j.1151-2916.2003.tb03538.x. Retrieved 2010-06-09.
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Jump up ^ "Hygiene in the home kitchen: Changes in behaviour and impact of key microbiological hazard control measures". Food Control. 35: 392–400. doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.07.026.
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Jump up ^ Stamminger, Rainer (2003). "A European Comparison of Cleaning Dishes by Hand". Proceedings of EEDAL conference. Retrieved 2010-06-13.
Jump up ^ Stamminger, Rainer (May–June 2004). "Is a machine more efficient than the hand?" (PDF). Home Energy. Retrieved 2010-06-13.
Jump up ^ Dishwashing: man vs. machine. Yoram Gat, Pro Bono Statistics Weblog (2008)
Jump up ^ Dishwashing and Water Conservation: An Opportunity for Environmental Education. Journal of Extension, Volume 41, Number 1 (2003).
Jump up ^ "Md. Dish Soap Bill Might Help Clean Bay". Washingtonpost.com. 2007-03-03. Retrieved 2012-06-20.
Jump up ^ "Phosphate Free Dishwasher Detergent Leaves Dishes Dirty". GE Appliances. Retrieved 2013-11-30.
Jump up ^ Gever Tulley and Julie Spiegler (2010-02-23). "How to Cook Something in the Dishwasher". Lifehacker.com. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
Jump up ^ Alter, Lloyd (2004-11-22). "Dishwasher cooking- The Recipes". TreeHugger. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
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Jump up ^ "Use Dishwasher for cooking beef!". Streetdirectory.com. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
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This article is about the appliance. For manual dishwashing, see dishwashing. For the video game of the same name, see The Dishwasher: Dead Samurai.
[hide]This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
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A dishwasher containing clean dishes
An open dishwasher
A dishwasher is a mechanical device for cleaning dishware and cutlery. Unlike manual dishwashing, which relies largely on physical scrubbing to remove soiling, the mechanical dishwasher cleans by spraying hot water, typically between 45 and 75 °C (110 and 170 °F), at the dishes, with lower temperatures used for delicate items.[1]
A mix of water and detergent is pumped to one or more rotating spray arms, which blast the dishes with the cleaning mixture. Once the wash is finished, the water is drained, more hot water is pumped in and a rinse cycle begins. After the rinse cycle finishes and the water is drained, the dishes are dried using one of several drying methods. Typically a rinse aid is used to eliminate water spots for streak-free dishes and glassware resulting from hard water or other reasons.[2]
In addition to domestic units, industrial dishwashers are available for use in commercial establishments such as hotels and restaurants, where a large number of dishes must be cleaned. Washing is conducted with temperatures of 65–71 °C (149–160 °F) and sanitation is achieved by either the use of a booster heater that will provide a 82 °C (180 °F) "final rinse" temperature or through the use of a chemical sanitizer.
Contents [hide]
1History
2Design
2.1Size and capacity
2.2Layout
2.3Washing elements
2.4Features
3Process
3.1Drying
4Cleaning agents
4.1Detergent
4.2Rinse aid
4.3Dishwasher salt
5Effects on crockery
5.1Glassware
5.2Unsuitable items
6Efficiency
7Adoption
7.1Commercial use
8Environmental impact
9Alternative uses
10See also
11References
12External links
History[edit]
A hand-powered dishwasher and an early electric dishwasher both from about 1917.
The first reports of a mechanical dishwashing device are of an 1850 patent in the United States by Joel Houghton for a hand-powered wood device. This device was made of wood and was cranked by hand while water sprayed onto the dishes. This device was both slow and unreliable. Another patent was granted to L.A. Alexander in 1865 that was similar to the first but featured a hand-cranked rack system. Neither device was practical or widely accepted.
The first reliable hand-powered dishwasher was invented in 1887 by Josephine Cochrane with the help of George Butters and was unveiled at the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago, Illinois. Cochrane's inspiration was her frustration at the damage to her good china that occurred when her servants handled it during cleaning.[3]
Advertisement in an 1896 issue of McClure's for The Faultless Quaker Dishwasher.
Europe's first domestic dishwasher with an electric motor was invented and manufactured by Miele in 1929.[4][5]
In the United Kingdom, William Howard Livens invented a small, non-electric dishwasher suitable for domestic use in 1924. It was the first dishwasher that incorporated most of the design elements that are featured in the models of today;[6] it included a front door for loading, a wire rack to hold the dirty crockery and a rotating sprayer. Drying elements were even added to his design in 1940. It was the first machine suitable for domestic use, and it came at a time when permanent plumbing and running water in the house was becoming increasingly common.[7][8]
Despite this, Liven's design did not become a commercial success, and dishwashers were only successfully sold as domestic utilities in the postwar boom of the 1950s, albeit only to the wealthy. Initially dishwashers were sold as standalone or portable devices, but with the development of the wall-to-wall countertop and standardized height cabinets, dishwashers began to be marketed with standardized sizes and shapes, integrated underneath the kitchen countertop as a modular unit with other kitchen appliances.
By the 1970s dishwashers had become commonplace in domestic residences in North America and Western Europe. By 2012, over 75 percent of homes in the US and Germany had dishwashers.[9]
Design[edit]
Size and capacity[edit]
North American counter-top dishwasher
Dishwashers that are installed into standard kitchen cabinets have a standard width and depth of 60 cm (Europe) or 24 inches (US), and most dishwashers must be installed into a hole a minimum of 86 cm (Europe) or 34 inches (US) tall. Portable dishwashers exist in 45 and 60 cm (Europe) or 18 and 24 inch (US) widths, with casters and attached countertops. Dishwashers may come in standard or tall tub designs; standard tub dishwashers have a service kickplate beneath the dishwasher door that allows for simpler maintenance and installation, but tall tub dishwashers have approximately 20% more capacity and better sound dampening from having a continuous front door.
The international standard for the capacity of a dishwasher is expressed as standard place settings. Commercial dishwashers are rated as plates per hour. The rating is based on standard sized plates of the same size. The same can be said for commercial glass washers, as they are based on standard glasses, normally pint glasses.
Layout[edit]
Present-day machines feature a drop-down front panel door, allowing access to the interior, which usually contains two or sometimes three pull-out racks; racks can also be referred to as "baskets". In older U.S. models from the 1950s, the entire tub rolled out when the machine latch was opened, and loading/removing washable items was from the top, with the user reaching deep into the compartment for some items. Youngstown Kitchens, which manufactured entire kitchen cabinets and sinks, offered a tub-style dishwasher, which was coupled to a conventional kitchen sink as one unit.
Today, "dish drawer" models mimic this style, while the half-depth design eliminates the inconvenience of the long reach that was necessary with older full-depth models. "Cutlery baskets" are also common. A drawer dishwasher, first introduced by Fisher & Paykel in 1997, is a variant of the dishwasher in which the baskets slide out with the door in the same manner as a drawer filing cabinet, with each drawer in a double-drawer model being able to operate independently of the other.
The inside of a dishwasher in the North American market is either stainless steel or plastic. Stainless steel tubs resist hard water, provide better sound damping, and preserve heat to dry dishes more quickly. They also come at a premium price. Older models used baked enamel on steel and are prone to chipping and erosion; chips in the baked enamel finish must be cleaned of all dirt and corrosion then patched with a special compound or even a good quality two-part epoxy. All European-made dishwashers feature a stainless steel interior as standard, even on low end models. The same is true for a built-in water softener.
Washing elements[edit]
The flutes (or valve meters) of the dishwasher are prevalent in American models (with some appearing in European and Asian models influenced by US design) due to the higher pressure of the American water system (which averages at 90 torrs/min, as opposed to the 65 torrs/min pressure in other countries). The flutes help drain the excess water, preventing entropy within the system due to higher pressures at a lower volume. This is a removable fixture, as some areas require a higher or lower discharge based on their water system.
European dishwashers almost universally use two or three spray arms which are fed from the bottom and back wall of the dishwasher leaving both racks unimpeded and also such models tend to use inline water heaters, removing the need for exposed elements in the base of the machine that can melt plastic items near to them. Many North American dishwashers tend to use more basic and old fashioned water distribution and exposed elements in the base of the dishwasher. Some North American machines use a large cone or similar structure in the bottom dish rack to prevent placement of dishes in the center of the rack. The dishwasher directs water from the bottom of the dishwasher up through this structure to the upper wash arm to spray water on the top dish rack. Some dishwashers, including many models from Whirlpool and Kitchenaid, use a tube attached to the top rack that connects to a water source at the back of the dishwasher, which allows full use of the bottom rack. Late-model Frigidaire dishwashers shoot a jet of water from the top of the washer down into the upper wash arm, again allowing full use of the bottom rack (but requiring that a small funnel on the top rack be kept clear).
Features[edit]
File:Geschirrspuelertv.ogg
Clear model of a running dishwasher
Mid-to-higher end North American dishwashers often come with hard food disposal units, which behave like miniature garbage (waste) disposal units that eliminate large pieces of food waste from the wash water. One manufacturer that is known for omitting hard food disposals is Bosch, a German brand; however, Bosch does so in order to reduce noise. If the larger items of food waste are removed before placing in the dishwasher, pre-rinsing is not necessary even without integrated waste disposal units.
Many new dishwashers feature microprocessor-controlled, sensor-assisted wash cycles that adjust the wash duration to the quantity of dirty dishes (sensed by changes in water temperature) or the amount of dirt in the rinse water (sensed chemically/optically). This can save water and energy if the user runs a partial load. In such dishwashers the electromechanical rotary switch often used to control the washing cycle is replaced by a microprocessor but most sensors and valves are still required to be present. However, pressure switches (some dishwashers use a pressure switch and flow meter) are not required in most microprocessor controlled dishwashers as they use the motor and sometimes a rotational position sensor to sense the resistance of water; when it senses there is no cavitation it knows it has the optimal amount of water. A bimetal switch or wax motor opens the detergent door during the wash cycle.
Some dishwashers include a child-lockout feature to prevent accidental starting or stopping of the wash cycle by children. A child lock can sometimes be included to prevent young children opening the door during a wash cycle. This prevents accidents with hot water and strong detergents used during the wash cycle.
Process[edit]
Drying[edit]
The heat inside the dishwasher dries the contents after the final hot rinse; the final rinse adds a small amount of rinse aid to the hot water, as this improves drying significantly. Plastic and non-stick items may not dry properly compared to china and glass, which hold the heat better. Some dishwashers incorporate a fan to improve drying. Older dishwashers with a visible heating element (at the bottom of the wash cabinet, below the bottom basket) may use the heating element to improve drying; however, this uses more energy.
North American dishwashers tend to use heat-assisted drying via an exposed element. European machines and some high end North American machines use passive methods for drying – a stainless steel interior helps this process and some models use heat exchange technology between the inner and outer skin of the machine to cool the walls of the interior and speed up drying. Most dishwashers feature a drying sensor and as such, a dish-washing cycle is always considered complete when a drying indicator, usually in the form of an illuminated "end" light, or in more modern models on a digital display or audible sound, exhibits to the operator that the washing and drying cycle is now over.
Governmental agencies often recommend air-drying dishes by either disabling or stopping the drying cycle to save energy.[10]
Cleaning agents[edit]
Detergent[edit]
A detergent tablet
Different kinds of dishwashing detergent contain different combinations of ingredients. Common ingredients include:
Phosphates
Bind calcium and magnesium ions to prevent 'hard-water' type limescale deposits. They can cause ecological damage, so their use is starting to be phased out. Phosphate-free detergents are sold as eco-friendly detergents.
Oxygen-based bleaching agents (older-style powders and liquids contain chlorine-based bleaching agents)
Break up and bleach organic deposits.
Non-ionic surfactants
Lower the surface tension of the water, emulsifies oil, lipid and fat food deposits, prevents droplet spotting on drying.
Alkaline salts
These are a primary component, in older and original-style dishwasher detergent powders[citation needed] . Highly alkaline salts attack and dissolve grease, but are extremely corrosive (fatal) if swallowed. Salts used may include metasilicates, alkali metal hydroxides, Sodium carbonate etc.[11]
Enzymes
Break up protein-based food deposits, and possibly oil, lipid and fat deposits. Proteases do this by breaking down the proteins into smaller peptides that are more easily washed away[citation needed] .
Anti-corrosion agent(s)
Often sodium silicate, this prevents corrosion of dishwasher components[citation needed] .
Dishwashing detergent may also contain[citation needed] :
Anti-foaming agents
Foam interferes with the washing action.
Additives to slow down the removal of glaze & patterns from glazed ceramics
Perfumes
Anti-caking agents (in granular detergent)
Starches (in tablet based detergents)
Gelling agents (in liquid/gel based detergents)
Sand (inexpensive powdered detergents)
Dishwasher detergents are strongly alkaline (basic).
Inexpensive powders may contain sand, which can be verified by dissolving the powder in boiling water and then passing the solution through a coffee filter. Such detergents may harm the dishes and the dishwasher. Powdered detergents are more likely to cause fading on china patterns.[12]
Besides older style detergents for dishwashers, biodegradable detergents also exist for dishwashers. These detergents may be more environmentally friendly than conventional detergents.
Hand-washing dish detergent (washing up liquid) creates a large foam of bubbles which will leak from the dishwasher.
Rinse aid[edit]
Rinse aid (sometimes called rinse agent) contains surfactants and uses Marangoni stress to prevent droplet formation, so that water drains from the surfaces in thin sheets, rather than forming droplets.[citation needed]
The benefits of using it are that it prevents "spotting" on glassware (caused by droplets of water drying and leaving behind dissolved limescale minerals), and can also improve drying performance as there is less water remaining to be dried. A thinner sheet of water also has a much larger surface-area than a droplet of the same volume, which increases the likelihood of water molecules evaporating.[13]
Dishwasher salt[edit]
Main article: Dishwasher salt
In some countries, especially those in Europe, dishwashers include a built-in water softener that removes calcium and magnesium ions from the water. Dishwasher salt, which is coarse-grained sodium chloride (table salt), is used to recharge the resin in the built-in ion-exchange system. The coarse grains prevent it from clogging the softener unit; unlike certain types of salt used for culinary purposes, it does not contain added insoluble anticaking agents or magnesium salts. The presence of magnesium salts will defeat the purpose of removing magnesium from the water softener. Anticaking agents may lead to clogging or may contain magnesium. Table salt may contain added iodine in the form of sodium iodide or potassium iodide. These compounds will not affect the ion-exchange system, but adding table salt to the dishwasher's water softening unit can damage it.
If a dishwasher has a built-in water softener there will be a special compartment inside the dishwasher where the salt is to be added when needed. This salt compartment is separate from the detergent compartment, and generally located at the bottom of the wash cabinet (this is below the bottom basket). On most dishwashers, an automatic sensing system will notify the user when more dishwasher salt is required.
If the dishwasher has run out of the salt that recharges the ion exchange resin that softens the water, and the water supply is "hard", limescale deposits can appear on all items, but are especially visible on glassware.
Effects on crockery[edit]
Glassware[edit]
Glassware washed by dishwashing machines can develop a white haze on the surface over time. This may be caused by any or all of the below processes, only one of which is reversible:
Silicate filming, etching, and accelerated crack corrosion
This film starts as an iridescence or "oil-film" effect on glassware, and progresses into a "milky" or "cloudy" appearance (which is not a deposit) that cannot be polished off or removed like limescale. It is formed because the detergent is strongly alkaline (basic) and glass dissolves slowly in alkaline aqueous solution. It becomes less soluble in the presence of silicates in the water (added as anti-metal-corrosion agents in the dishwasher detergent). Since the cloudy appearance is due to nonuniform glass dissolution, it is (somewhat paradoxically) less marked if dissolution is higher, i.e. if a silicate-free detergent is used; also, in certain cases, the etching will primarily be seen in areas that have microscopic surface cracks as a result of the items' manufacturing.[14][15] Limitation of this undesirable reaction is possible by controlling water hardness, detergent load and temperature. The type of glass is an important factor in determining if this effect is a problem. Some dishwashers can reduce this etching effect by automatically dispensing the correct amount of detergent throughout the wash cycle based on the level of water hardness programmed.
Devitrification
Components found in dishwasher detergents can chemically scour the glass, causing tiny crystals, which can precipitate further crystal growth that can turn entire glasses cloudy[16]
Unsuitable items[edit]
This section contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to content or by moving it to Wikiversity, Wikibooks or Wikivoyage. (November 2016)
Lead crystal should not be cleaned in a dishwasher as the corrosive effect of dishwasher detergent is high on such types of glass – that is, it will quickly go 'cloudy'. In addition, the lead in the crystal glass can be converted into a soluble form, which could endanger the health of subsequent users.[17] Some items can be damaged if washed in a dishwasher because of the effects of the chemicals and hot water. Aluminium items will discolor. Saucepan manufacturers often recommend handwashing due to the harsh effects of the chemicals on the pan coatings. Valuable items, such as antiques or hand-painted items, should only be washed manually as they may be dulled or damaged, and detergents will gradually fade the glazing and print. Sterling silver and pewter will oxidize and discolour from the heat. Furthermore, pewter has a low melting point and may warp in some dishwashers.
Items soiled by wax, cigarette ash or anything which might contaminate the rest of the wash load (such as poisons or mineral oils) should be washed by hand. Objects contaminated by solvents may explode in a dishwasher. Glued items, such as some cutlery handles or wooden cutting boards, may be melted or softened if put in a dishwasher, especially on a hot wash cycle when temperatures can reach 75 °C (167 °F); these high temperatures can also damage plastic items which are designated as only being washed by hand. Some plastic items can be distorted or melted if placed in the bottom rack too close to an exposed heating element; therefore, most dishwasher-safe plastic items recommend placing in the top rack only (many newer dishwashers have a concealed heating element away from the bottom rack entirely). Squeezing plastic items into small spaces may cause the plastic to distort in shape.
Dishwashers should only be used to wash normal household items, such as plates, cutlery, cups, mugs, kitchenware etc. Items such as paintbrushes, tools, furnace filters etc. should not be put into a dishwasher as this will cause the subsequent washes to become contaminated and may cause damage to the appliance.
Knives and other cooking tools that are made of carbon steel, semi-stainless steels like D2 or specialized, highly hardened cutlery steels like ZDP189 should also not be placed into a dishwasher, as these steels are not corrosion resistant or far less corrosion resistant than the austenitic stainless steels used for cookware. Also, very sharp edges can become dulled or damaged from colliding with other items and/or thermal stress from the washing cycles, and can pose an injury hazard if another person unloading the dishwasher does not expect such items in the dishwasher. Ceramic edges are very brittle and can take damage from collision with dishwasher parts or other contents.
Cast iron cookware is normally seasoned with oil or grease and heat, which causes the oil or grease to be absorbed into the pores of the cookware, thereby giving a smooth relatively non-stick cooking surface. Such cookware should not be washed in a dishwasher as the combination of alkali based detergent and hot water will strip off this cooking surface, requiring reseasoning before the item may once again be used.
Efficiency[edit]
In the European Union, the energy consumption of a dishwasher for a standard usage is shown on a European Union energy label. In the United States, the energy consumption of a dishwasher is defined using the energy factor.
Most consumer dishwashers use a 75 °C (167 °F) thermostat in the sanitizing process. During the final rinse cycle, the heating element and wash pump are turned on, and the cycle timer (electronic or electromechanical) is stopped until the thermostat is tripped. At this point, the cycle timer resumes and will generally trigger a drain cycle within a few timer increments.
Most consumer dishwashers use 75 °C (167 °F) rather than 83 °C (181 °F) for reasons of burn risk, energy and water consumption, total cycle time, and possible damage to plastic items placed inside the dishwasher. With new advances in detergents, lower water temperatures (50–55 °C / 122–131 °F) are needed to prevent premature decay of the enzymes used to eat the grease and other build-ups on the dishes.
In the US, residential dishwashers can be certified to a NSF International testing protocol which confirms the cleaning and sanitation performance of the unit.[18]
A 2009 study showed that the microwave and the dishwasher were both effective ways to clean domestic sponges.[19]
Adoption[edit]
Commercial use[edit]
A commercial dishwasher
A Hobart commercial dishwasher
Large heavy-duty dishwashers are available for use in commercial establishments (e.g. hotels, restaurants) where a large number of dishes must be cleaned.
Unlike a residential dishwasher, a commercial dishwasher does not utilize a drying cycle (commercial drying is achieved by heated ware meeting open air once the wash/rinse/sanitation cycles have been completed) and thus are significantly faster than their residential counterparts. Washing is conducted with 65–71 °C / 150–160 °F temperatures and sanitation is achieved by either the use of a booster heater that will provide the machine 82 °C / 180 °F "final rinse" temperature or through the use of a chemical sanitizer. This distinction labels the machines as either "high-temp" or "low-temp".
Some commercial dishwashers work similarly to a commercial car wash, with a pulley system that pulls the rack through a small chamber (known widely as a "rack conveyor" systems). Single-rack washers require an operator to push the rack into the washer, close the doors, start the cycle, and then open the doors to pull out the cleaned rack, possibly through a second opening into an unloading area.
In the UK, the British Standards Institution set standards for dishwashers. In the US, NSF International (an independent not-for-profit organization) sets the standards for wash and rinse time along with minimum water temperature for chemical or hot water sanitizing methods.[20] There are many types of commercial dishwashers including under counter, single tank, conveyor, flight type, and carousel machines.
Commercial dishwashers often have significantly different plumbing and operations than a home unit, in that there are often separate spray arms for washing and rinsing/sanitizing. The wash water is heated with an in-tank electric heat element and mixed with a cleaning solution, and is used repeatedly from one load to the next. The wash tank usually has a large strainer basket to collect food debris, and the strainer may not be emptied until the end of the day's kitchen operations.
Water used for rinsing and sanitizing is generally delivered directly through building water supply, and is not reusable. The used rinse water falls into the wash tank reservoir, which dilutes some of the used wash water and causes a small amount to drain out through an overflow tube. The system may first rinse with pure water only, and then sanitize with an additive solution that is left on the dishes as they leave the washer to dry.
Additional soap is periodically added to the main wash water tank, from either large soap concentrate tanks or dissolved from a large solid soap block, to maintain wash water cleaning effectiveness.
Environmental impact[edit]
Comparing the efficiency of automatic dishwashers and hand-washing of dishes is difficult because hand-washing techniques vary drastically by individual. According to a peer-reviewed study in 2003, hand washing and drying of an amount of dishes equivalent to a fully loaded automatic dishwasher (no cookware or bakeware) could use between 20–300 litres (5.3–79.3 US gal) of water and between 0.1 and 8 kWh of energy, while the numbers for energy-efficient automatic dishwashers were 15–22 litres (4.0–5.8 US gal) and 1 to 2 kWh, respectively. The study concluded that fully loaded dishwashers use less energy, water, and detergent than the average European hand-washer.[21][22] For the automatic dishwasher results, the dishes were not rinsed before being loaded. The study does not address costs associated with the manufacture and disposal of dishwashers, the cost of possible accelerated wear of dishes from the chemical harshness of dishwasher detergent, the comparison for cleaning cookware, or the value of labour saved; hand washers needed between 65 and 106 minutes. Several points of criticism on this study have been raised.[23] For example, kilowatt hours of electricity were compared against energy used for heating hot water without taking into account possible inefficiencies. Also, inefficient human washers were compared against optimal usage of a fully loaded dishwasher without manual pre-rinsing that can take up to 100 litres (26 US gal) of water.[24]
Most dishwasher detergent contains complex phosphates, as they have several properties that aid in effective cleaning. However, the same chemicals have been removed from laundry detergents in many countries as a result of concerns raised about the increase in algal blooms in waterways caused by increasing phosphate levels (see eutrophication). 17 US states have partial or full bans on the use of phosphates in dish detergent,[25] and 2 US states Maryland and New York ban phosphates in commercial dishwashing. Detergent companies claimed it is not cost effective to make separate batches of detergent for the states with phosphate bans (although detergents are typically formulated for local markets), and so most have voluntarily removed phosphates from all dishwasher detergents.[26]
In addition, rinse aids have contained nonylphenol and nonylphenol ethoxylates. These have been banned in the European Union by EU Directive 76/769/EEC.
Alternative uses[edit]
Dishwashers can be used to cook certain foods, in particular salmon.[27][28][29][30]
See also[edit]
Home appliance
Washing machine#Manufacturers and brands
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Tina Gant (30 September 2003). International Directory of Company Histories. St. James Press. ISBN 978-1-55862-486-3.
Jump up ^ < "Made in the UK: The life-changing everyday innovations which put British genius on the map".
Jump up ^ "Archive Gallery: Kitchens of the Incredible 1950s Future". Popular Science. Retrieved 27 October 2014.
Jump up ^ William Howard Livens (1924-10-23). "Improvements in apparatus for washing household crockery and the like". FR579765. UK Intellectual Property Office. Retrieved 2008-03-04.
Jump up ^ "The History of the Dishwasher". Yellow Advertiser. Retrieved 2013-11-02.
Jump up ^ "Top 10 Tips for Renters : ENERGY STAR". Energystar.gov. Retrieved 2012-06-20.
Jump up ^ "Alkaline dishwasher detergent – The Procter & Gamble Company". Freepatentsonline.com. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
Jump up ^ "Hotpoint Service – Appliance Repairs, Spare Parts and Accessories for Hotpoint, Creda, Ariston". Hotpointservice.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-06-20.
Jump up ^ Evaporation#Factors influencing the rate of evaporation
Jump up ^ "Lehigh-Unilever study sheds light on mystery of cloudy wineglasses". Scienceblog.com. Retrieved 2012-06-20.
Jump up ^ Sharma, Anju; Jain, Himanshu; Carnali, Joseph O.; Lugo, Guillermo Manuel (2003). "Influence of the Manufacturing Process on Corrosion Behavior of Soda-Lime-Silicate Glassware". Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 86 (10): 1669–1676. doi:10.1111/j.1151-2916.2003.tb03538.x. Retrieved 2010-06-09.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-09-01. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
Jump up ^ "''Lead Contamination In Our Environment''". Yale.edu. Retrieved 2012-06-20.
Jump up ^ "NSF Consumer Information: Residential Appliances and Other Products for the Home". Nsf.org. Retrieved 2012-06-20.
Jump up ^ "Hygiene in the home kitchen: Changes in behaviour and impact of key microbiological hazard control measures". Food Control. 35: 392–400. doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.07.026.
Jump up ^ "NSF article on dishwashers". Nsf.org. Retrieved 2012-06-20.
Jump up ^ Stamminger, Rainer (2003). "A European Comparison of Cleaning Dishes by Hand". Proceedings of EEDAL conference. Retrieved 2010-06-13.
Jump up ^ Stamminger, Rainer (May–June 2004). "Is a machine more efficient than the hand?" (PDF). Home Energy. Retrieved 2010-06-13.
Jump up ^ Dishwashing: man vs. machine. Yoram Gat, Pro Bono Statistics Weblog (2008)
Jump up ^ Dishwashing and Water Conservation: An Opportunity for Environmental Education. Journal of Extension, Volume 41, Number 1 (2003).
Jump up ^ "Md. Dish Soap Bill Might Help Clean Bay". Washingtonpost.com. 2007-03-03. Retrieved 2012-06-20.
Jump up ^ "Phosphate Free Dishwasher Detergent Leaves Dishes Dirty". GE Appliances. Retrieved 2013-11-30.
Jump up ^ Gever Tulley and Julie Spiegler (2010-02-23). "How to Cook Something in the Dishwasher". Lifehacker.com. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
Jump up ^ Alter, Lloyd (2004-11-22). "Dishwasher cooking- The Recipes". TreeHugger. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
Jump up ^ "How to Cook Lasagna in Your Dishwasher: 13 steps". wikiHow. 2010-01-14. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
Jump up ^ "Use Dishwasher for cooking beef!". Streetdirectory.com. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dishwashers.
How Dishwashers Work [Page on the HowStuffWorks website explaining how dishwashers work]
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Rum
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the beverage. For other uses, see Rum (disambiguation).
Rum display in a liquor store
Government House rum, manufactured by the Virgin Islands Company distillery in St. Croix, circa 1941
Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane byproducts, such as molasses, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a clear liquid, is then usually aged in oak barrels.
The majority of the world's rum production occurs in the Caribbean and Latin America. Rum is also produced in Scotland, Austria, Spain, Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, the Philippines, India, Reunion Island, Mauritius, South Africa, Taiwan, Thailand, Japan, the United States, and Canada.
Rums are produced in various grades. Light rums are commonly used in cocktails, whereas "golden" and "dark" rums were typically consumed straight or neat, on the rocks, or used for cooking, but are now commonly consumed with mixers. Premium rums are also available, made to be consumed either straight or iced.
Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies as well as in The Maritimes and Newfoundland. This beverage has famous associations with the Royal Navy (where it was mixed with water or beer to make grog) and piracy (where it was consumed as bumbo). Rum has also served as a popular medium of economic exchange, used to help fund enterprises such as slavery (see Triangular trade), organized crime, and military insurgencies (e.g., the American Revolution and Australia's Rum Rebellion).
Contents
1Etymology
2History
2.1Origins
2.2Colonial America
2.3Naval rum
2.4Colonial Australia
3Categorization
3.1Regional variations
3.2Grades
4Production method
4.1Fermentation
4.2Distillation
4.3Aging and blending
5In cuisine
6See also
7Notes
8References
9Further reading
10External links
Etymology[edit]
The Mount Gay Rum visitors centre claims to be the world's oldest remaining rum company, with earliest confirmed deed from 1703.
The origin of the word "rum" is generally unclear. In an 1824 essay about the word's origin, Samuel Morewood, a British etymologist, suggested it might be from the British slang term for "the best", as in "having a rum time." He wrote:
As spirits, extracted from molasses, could not well be ranked under the name whiskey, brandy, or arrack, it would be called rum, to denote its excellence or superior quality.[1]
Given the harsh taste of early rum, this is unlikely. Morewood later suggested another possibility: that it was taken from the last syllable of the Latin word for sugar, saccharum, an explanation commonly heard today.[1]
Other etymologists have mentioned the Romani word rum, meaning "strong" or "potent". These words have been linked to the ramboozle and rumfustian, both popular British drinks in the mid-17th century. However, neither was made with rum, but rather eggs, ale, wine, sugar, and various spices. The most probable origin is as a truncated version of rumbullion or rumbustion.[2] Both words surfaced in English about the same time as rum did (Joan Coromines states 1651 as the first recording of "rumbullion", and 1654 for "rum" -1770 for the first recording in Spanish of ron), and were slang terms for "tumult" or "uproar". This is a far more convincing explanation, and brings the image of fractious men fighting in entanglements at island tippling houses, which are early versions of the bar.[1]
Another claim is the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, a drinking glass.[3] Other options include contractions of the words iterum, Latin for "again, a second time", or arôme, French for aroma.[4]
Regardless of the original source, the name was already in common use by 1654, when the General Court of Connecticut ordered the confiscations of "whatsoever Barbados liquors, commonly called rum, kill devil and the like".[5] A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor "whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc."[4]
In current usage, the name used for a rum is often based on its place of origin.
For rums from Spanish-speaking locales, the word ron is used. A ron añejo ("old rum") indicates a rum that has been significantly aged and is often used for premium products.
Rhum is the term that typically distinguishes rum made from fresh sugar cane juice from rum made from molasses in French-speaking locales like Martinique.[6] A rhum vieux ("old rum") is an aged French rum that meets several other requirements.
Some of the many other names for rum are Nelson's blood, kill-devil, demon water, pirate's drink, navy neaters, and Barbados water.[7] A version of rum from Newfoundland is referred to by the name screech, while some low-grade West Indies rums are called tafia.[8]
History[edit]
Origins[edit]
The precursors to rum date back to antiquity. Development of fermented drinks produced from sugarcane juice is believed to have first occurred either in ancient India or in China,[2] and to have spread from there. An example of such an early drink is brum. Produced by the Malay people, brum dates back thousands of years.[9] Marco Polo also recorded a 14th-century account of a "very good wine of sugar" that was offered to him in the area that became modern-day Iran.[2]
The first distillation of rum took place on the sugarcane plantations of the Caribbean in the 17th century. Plantation slaves first discovered molasses, a byproduct of the sugar refining process, could be fermented into alcohol.[10] Later, distillation of these alcoholic byproducts concentrated the alcohol and removed impurities, producing the first true rums. Tradition suggests rum first originated on the island of Barbados. However, in the decade of the 1620s, rum production was recorded in Brazil.[11] A liquid identified as rum has been found in a tin bottle found on the Swedish warship Vasa, which sank in 1628.[12]
A 1651 document from Barbados stated, "The chief fuddling they make in the island is Rumbullion, alias Kill-Divil, and this is made of sugar canes distilled, a hot, hellish, and terrible liquor."[10]
Colonial America[edit]
Pirates carrying rum to shore to purchase slaves as depicted in The Pirates Own Book by Charles Ellms
After rum's development in the Caribbean, the drink's popularity spread to Colonial North America. To support the demand for the drink, the first rum distillery in the British colonies of North America was set up in 1664 on present-day Staten Island. Boston, Massachusetts had a distillery three years later.[13] The manufacture of rum became early Colonial New England's largest and most prosperous industry.[14] New England became a distilling center due to the technical, metalworking and cooperage skills and abundant lumber; the rum produced there was lighter, more like whiskey. Rhode Island rum even joined gold as an accepted currency in Europe for a period of time.[15] Estimates of rum consumption in the American colonies before the American Revolutionary War had every man, woman, or child drinking an average of 3 imperial gallons (14 l) of rum each year.[16]
To support this demand for the molasses to produce rum, along with the increasing demand for sugar in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries, a labor source to work the sugar plantations in the Caribbean was needed. A triangular trade was established between Africa, the Caribbean, and the colonies to help support this need.[17] The exchange of slaves, molasses, and rum was quite profitable, and the disruption to the trade caused by the Sugar Act in 1764 may have even helped cause the American Revolution.[16] In the slave trade, rum was also used as a medium of exchange. For example, the slave Venture Smith, whose history was later published, had been purchased in Africa for four gallons of rum plus a piece of calico.
The popularity of rum continued after the American Revolution, with George Washington insisting on a barrel of Barbados rum at his 1789 inauguration.[18]
Rum started to play an important role in the political system; candidates attempted to influence the outcome of an election through their generosity with rum. The people would attend the hustings to see which candidate appeared more generous. The candidate was expected to drink with the people to show he was independent and truly a republican. In the 1833 Mississippi state senate election, one candidate, Judge Edward Turner, poured his drinks and socialized with the people. He was more personal and it appeared as if he was going to win. The other candidate, a Methodist parson named Dick Stewart, announced he would not be pouring their drinks and they could have as much as they wanted; Dick Stewart won.[19][20]
Eventually the restrictions on sugar imports from the British islands of the Caribbean, combined with the development of American whiskey, led to a decline in the drink's popularity in North America.
Naval rum[edit]
See also: Rum ration
Wrens during World War II serving rum to a sailor from a tub inscribed "The King God Bless Him" - Robert Sargent Austin
Rum grog
Rum's association with piracy began with British privateers trading on the valuable commodity. As some of the privateers became pirates and buccaneers, their fondness for rum remained, the association between the two only being strengthened by literary works such as Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island.[21]
The association of rum with the Royal Navy began in 1655, when the British fleet captured the island of Jamaica. With the availability of domestically produced rum, the British changed the daily ration of liquor given to seamen from French brandy to rum.[22]
Navy Rum was originally a blended rum mixed from rums locally produced in the West Indies. It varies in strength from 95.5 Proof (47.75% ABV) to 114 Proof (57% ABV).
While the ration was originally given neat, or mixed with lime juice, the practice of watering down the rum began around 1740. To help minimize the effect of the alcohol on his sailors, Admiral Edward Vernon had the rum ration watered producing a mixture that became known as grog. While many believe the term was coined in honor of the grogram cloak Admiral Vernon wore in rough weather,[23] the term predates his famous order. It probably originates in the West Indies, perhaps of African etymology. The Royal Navy continued to give its sailors a daily rum ration, known as a "tot," until the practice was abolished after 31 July 1970.[24]
Today, a tot (totty) of rum is still issued on special occasions, using an order to "splice the mainbrace", which may only be given by the Queen, a member of the royal family or, on certain occasions, the admiralty board in the UK, with similar restrictions in other Commonwealth navies.[25] Recently, such occasions have included royal marriages or birthdays, or special anniversaries. In the days of daily rum rations, the order to "splice the mainbrace" meant double rations would be issued.
A legend involving naval rum and Horatio Nelson says that following his victory and death at the Battle of Trafalgar, Nelson's body was preserved in a cask of rum to allow transportation back to England. Upon arrival, however, the cask was opened and found to be empty. The [pickled] body was removed and, upon inspection, it was discovered that the sailors had drilled a hole in the bottom of the cask and drunk all the rum, hence the term "Nelson's blood" being used to describe rum. It also serves as the basis for the term tapping the admiral being used to describe surreptitiously sucking liquor from a cask through a straw. The details of the story are disputed, as many historians claim the cask contained French brandy, whilst others claim instead the term originated from a toast to Admiral Nelson.[26] Variations of the story, involving different notable corpses, have been in circulation for many years. The official record states merely that the body was placed in "refined spirits" and does not go into further detail.[27]
The Royal New Zealand Navy was the last naval force to give sailors a free daily tot of rum. The Royal Canadian Navy still gives a rum ration on special occasions; the rum is usually provided out of the commanding officer's fund, and is 150 proof (75%). It is consumed on the order "up spirits".[citation needed] The order to "splice the mainbrace" (i.e. take rum) can be given by the Queen as commander-in-chief, as occurred on 29 June 2010, when she gave the order to the Royal Canadian Navy as part of the celebration of their 100th anniversary.
Rum was also occasionally consumed mixed with gunpowder, either to test the proof of an alcohol ration (if the alcohol was diluted, the gunpowder would not ignite after being soaked with alcohol) or to seal a vow or show loyalty to a rebellion.[citation needed]
Colonial Australia[edit]
Beenleigh Rum Distillery, on the banks of the Albert River near Brisbane, Queensland, circa 1912
See also: Rum Rebellion
Rum became an important trade good in the early period of the colony of New South Wales. The value of rum was based upon the lack of coinage among the population of the colony, and due to the drink's ability to allow its consumer to temporarily forget about the lack of creature comforts available in the new colony. The value of rum was such that convict settlers could be induced to work the lands owned by officers of the New South Wales Corps. Due to rum's popularity among the settlers, the colony gained a reputation for drunkenness, though their alcohol consumption was less than levels commonly consumed in England at the time.[28]
Australia was so far away from Britain that the convict colony, established in 1788, faced severe food shortages, compounded by poor conditions for growing crops and the shortage of livestock. Eventually it was realized that it might be cheaper for India, instead of Britain, to supply the settlement of Sydney. By 1817, two out of every three ships which left Sydney went to Java or India, and cargoes from Bengal fed and equipped the colony. Casks of Bengal Rum (which was reputed to be stronger than Jamaican Rum, and not so sweet) were brought back in the depths of nearly every ship from India — although taken to shore clandestinely—to the dismay of the governors. Britons living in India grew wealthy through sending ships to Sydney "laden half with rice and half with bad spirits."[29]
Rum was intimately involved in the only military takeover of an Australian government, known as the Rum Rebellion. When William Bligh became governor of the colony, he attempted to remedy the perceived problem with drunkenness by outlawing the use of rum as a medium of exchange, but in response to Bligh's attempt to regulate the use of rum, in 1808, the New South Wales Corps marched with fixed bayonets to Government House and placed Bligh under arrest. The mutineers continued to control the colony until the arrival of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810.[30]
Categorization[edit]
Dividing rum into meaningful groupings is complicated because no single standard exists for what constitutes rum. Instead, rum is defined by the varying rules and laws of the nations producing the spirit. The differences in definitions include issues such as spirit proof, minimum aging, and even naming standards.
Examples of the differences in proof is Colombia, requiring their rums possess a minimum alcohol content of 50% alcohol by volume (ABV)[citation needed], while Chile and Venezuela require only a minimum of 40% ABV. Mexico requires rum be aged a minimum of eight months; the Dominican Republic, Panama and Venezuela require two years. Naming standards also vary. Argentina defines rums as white, gold, light, and extra light. Grenada and Barbados uses the terms white, overproof, and matured, while the United States defines rum, rum liqueur, and flavored rum.[31] In Australia, rum is divided into dark or red rum (underproof known as UP, overproof known as OP, and triple distilled) and white rum.
Despite these differences in standards and nomenclature, the following divisions are provided to help show the wide variety of rums produced.
Regional variations[edit]
The Bacardi building in Havana, Cuba
Within the Caribbean, each island or production area has a unique style. For the most part, these styles can be grouped by the language traditionally spoken. Due to the overwhelming influence of Puerto Rican rum, most rum consumed in the United States is produced in the "Spanish-speaking" style.
English-speaking islands and countries are known for darker rums with a fuller taste that retains a greater amount of the underlying molasses flavor. Rums from Antigua, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Barbados, Saint Lucia, Belize, Bermuda, Saint Kitts, the Demerara region of Guyana, and Jamaica are typical of this style.
In Jamaica particularly, a version called "Rude Rum" or "John Crow Batty" is served in some places and it is reportedly much stronger in alcohol content being listed as one of the 10 strongest drinks in the world, while it might also contain other intoxicants.[32] Ska star Prince Buster, who had a hit called "Rum and Coca-Cola", claimed in an interview that "when water was added [to rude rum] as a chaser the brew was so potent, smoke would rise out of the glass".[32] The term, denoting home made, strong rum, appears in New Zealand since at least the early 19th century.[33]
French-speaking islands are best known for their agricultural rums (rhum agricole). These rums, being produced exclusively from sugar cane juice, retain a greater amount of the original flavor of the sugar cane and are generally more expensive than molasses-based rums. Rums from Haiti, Guadeloupe and Martinique are typical of this style.
Spanish-speaking islands and countries traditionally produce añejo rums with a fairly smooth taste. Rums from Cuba, Guatemala, Panama, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, Colombia and Venezuela are typical of this style. Rum from the U.S. Virgin Islands is also of this style. The Canary Islands produces honey rum known as ron miel de Canarias and carries a geographical designation.
Cachaça is a spirit similar to rum that is produced in Brazil. Some countries, including the United States, classify cachaça as a type of rum. Seco, from Panama, is also a spirit similar to rum, but also similar to vodka since it is triple distilled.
Mexico produces a number of brands of light and dark rum, as well as other less-expensive flavored and unflavored sugarcane-based liquors, such as aguardiente de caña and charanda.
A spirit known as aguardiente, distilled from molasses and often infused with anise, with additional sugarcane juice added after distillation, is produced in Central America and northern South America.[34]
In West Africa, and particularly in Liberia, 'cane juice' (also known as Liberian rum[35] or simply CJ within Liberia itself[36]) is a cheap, strong spirit distilled from sugarcane, which can be as strong as 43% ABV [86 proof].[37] A refined cane spirit has also been produced in South Africa since the 1950s, simply known as cane.
Within Europe, in the Czech Republic a similar spirit made from sugar beet is known as Tuzemak.
In Germany, a cheap substitute for genuine dark rum is called Rum-Verschnitt (literally: blended or "cut" rum). This distilled beverage is made of genuine dark rum (often from Jamaica), rectified spirit, and water. Very often, caramel coloring is used, too. The relative amount of genuine rum it contains can be quite low, since the legal minimum is at only 5%. In Austria, a similar rum called Inländerrum or domestic rum is available. However, Austrian Inländerrum is always a spiced rum, such as the brand Stroh; German Rum-Verschnitt, in contrast, is never spiced or flavored.
Grades[edit]
The grades and variations used to describe rum depend on the location where a rum was produced. Despite these variations, the following terms are frequently used to describe various types of rum:
Dark rums, also known by their particular color, such as brown, black, or red rums, are classes a grade darker than gold rums. They are usually made from caramelized sugar or molasses. They are generally aged longer, in heavily charred barrels, giving them much stronger flavors than either light or gold rums, and hints of spices can be detected, along with a strong molasses or caramel overtone. They commonly provide substance in rum drinks, as well as color. In addition, dark rum is the type most commonly used in cooking. Most dark rums come from areas such as Jamaica, Haiti, and Martinique.
Flavored rums are infused with flavors of fruits, such as banana, mango, orange, pineapple, coconut, starfruit or lime. These are generally less than 40% ABV (80 proof). They mostly serve to flavor similarly-themed tropical drinks but are also often drunk neat or with ice. This infusion of flavors occurs after fermentation and distillation. Various chemicals are added to the alcohol to simulate the tastes of food.
Gold rums, also called "amber" rums, are medium-bodied rums that are generally aged. These gain their dark color from aging in wooden barrels (usually the charred, white oak barrels that are the byproduct of Bourbon whiskey). They have more flavor and are stronger-tasting than light rum, and can be considered midway between light rum and the darker varieties.
Light rums, also referred to as "silver" or "white" rums, in general, have very little flavor aside from a general sweetness. Light rums are sometimes filtered after aging to remove any color. The Brazilian cachaça is generally this type, but some varieties are more akin to "gold rums". The majority of light rums come from Puerto Rico. Their milder flavors make them popular for use in mixed drinks, as opposed to drinking them straight.
Overproof rums are much higher than the standard 40% ABV (80 proof), with many as high as 75% (150 proof) to 80% (160 proof) available. Two examples are Bacardi 151 or Pitorro moonshine. They are usually used in mixed drinks.
Premium rums, as with other sipping spirits such as Cognac and Scotch, are in a special market category. These are generally from boutique brands that sell carefully produced and aged rums. They have more character and flavor than their "mixing" counterparts and are generally consumed straight.
Spiced rums obtain their flavors through the addition of spices and, sometimes, caramel. Most are darker in color, and based on gold rums. Some are significantly darker, while many cheaper brands are made from inexpensive white rums and darkened with caramel color. Among the spices added are cinnamon, rosemary, absinthe/aniseed, or pepper.
Production method[edit]
Unlike some other spirits, rum has no defined production methods. Instead, rum production is based on traditional styles that vary between locations and distillers.
Fermentation[edit]
Sugarcane is harvested to make sugarcane juice and molasses.
Artisanal Rum distillery along the N7 road
Most rum is produced from molasses, which is made from sugarcane. A rum's quality is dependent on the quality and variety of the sugar cane that was used to create it. The sugar cane's quality depends on the soil type and climate that it was grown in. Within the Caribbean, much of this molasses is from Brazil.[18] A notable exception is the French-speaking islands, where sugarcane juice is the preferred base ingredient.[2] In Brazil itself, the distilled alcoholic beverage derived from cane juice is distinguished from rum and called cachaça.
Yeast and water are added to the base ingredient to start the fermentation process. While some rum producers allow wild yeasts to perform the fermentation, most use specific strains of yeast to help provide a consistent taste and predictable fermentation time.[38] Dunder, the yeast-rich foam from previous fermentations, is the traditional yeast source in Jamaica.[39] "The yeast employed will determine the final taste and aroma profile," says Jamaican master blender Joy Spence.[2] Distillers who make lighter rums, such as Bacardi, prefer to use faster-working yeasts.[2] Use of slower-working yeasts causes more esters to accumulate during fermentation, allowing for a fuller-tasting rum.[38]
Fermentation products like 2-ethyl-3-methyl butyric acid and esters like ethyl butanoate and ethyl hexanoate give rise to the sweet and fruitiness of rum.[1]
Distillation[edit]
As with all other aspects of rum production, no standard method is used for distillation. While some producers work in batches using pot stills, most rum production is done using column still distillation.[38] Pot still output contains more congeners than the output from column stills, so produces fuller-tasting rums.[2]
Aging and blending[edit]
Many countries require rum to be aged for at least one year. This aging is commonly performed in used bourbon casks,[38] but may also be performed in other types of wooden casks or stainless steel tanks. The aging process determines the color of the rum. When aged in oak casks, it becomes dark, whereas rum aged in stainless steel tanks remains virtually colorless.
Due to the tropical climate, common to most rum-producing areas, rum matures at a much higher rate than is typical for whisky or brandy. An indication of this higher rate is the angels' share, or amount of product lost to evaporation. While products aged in France or Scotland see about 2% loss each year, tropical rum producers may see as much as 10%.[38]
After aging, rum is normally blended to ensure a consistent flavor. Blending is the final step in the rum-making process.[40] As part of this blending process, light rums may be filtered to remove any color gained during aging. For darker rums, caramel may be added to adjust the color of the final product.
In cuisine[edit]
Besides rum punches, cocktails such as the Cuba libre and daiquiri have well-known stories of their invention in the Caribbean. Tiki culture in the U.S. helped expand rum's horizons with inventions such as the mai tai and zombie. Other well-known cocktails containing rum include the piña colada, a drink made popular in America by Rupert Holmes' song "Escape (The Piña Colada Song)",[41] and the mojito. Cold-weather drinks made with rum include the rum toddy and hot buttered rum.[42]
A number of local specialties also use rum, including Bermuda's Dark 'N' Stormy (Gosling's Black Seal rum with ginger beer), the painkiller from the British Virgin Islands, and a New Orleans cocktail known as the Hurricane. Jagertee is a mixture of rum and black tea popular in colder parts of Central Europe and served on special occasions in the British Army, where it is called Gunfire. Ti' Punch, French Creole for "petit punch", is a traditional drink in parts of the French West Indies.
Rum may also be used as a base in the manufacture of liqueurs and syrups, such as falernum.
Rum is used in a number of cooked dishes as a flavoring agent in items such as rum balls or rum cakes. It is commonly used to macerate fruit used in fruitcakes and is also used in marinades for some Caribbean dishes. Rum is also used in the preparation of rumtopf, bananas Foster and some hard sauces. Rum is sometimes mixed into ice cream, often with raisins, and in baking it is occasionally used in Joe Froggers, a type of cookie from New England
See also[edit]
iconLiquor portal
Drink portal
Cachaça
Charanda
Clairin
List of rum producers
Rhum agricole
Rum cake
Rum cocktails
Rum row
Rum-running
Tafia
Notes[edit]
^ a b c Curtis (2006), pp. 34–35
^ a b c d e f g Pacult, F. Paul (July 2002). "Mapping Rum By Region". Wine Enthusiast Magazine.
^ Blue, p. 72–73
^ a b Blue p. 73
^ "The West Indies Rum Distillery Limited". WIRD Ltd. 2009. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
^ Wayne Curtis. "The Five Biggest Rum Myths". Liquor.com.
^ Rajiv. M (12 March 2003). "A Caribbean drink". The Hindu.
^ Curtis (2006), p.14
^ Blue p. 72
^ a b Blue p. 70
^ Cavalcante, Messias Soares. A verdadeira história da cachaça. São Paulo: Sá Editora, 2011. 608p. ISBN 978-85-88193-62-8
^ "Arkeologerna: Skatter i havet". UR Play.
^ Blue p. 74
^ Roueché, Berton. Alcohol in Human Culture. in: Lucia, Salvatore P. (Ed.) Alcohol and Civilization New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963 p. 178
^ Blue p. 76
^ a b Tannahill p. 295
^ Tannahill p. 296
^ a b Frost, Doug (6 January 2005). "Rum makers distill unsavory history into fresh products". San Francisco Chronicle.
^ Rorabaugh, W.J. (1981). The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition. Oxford University Press. pp. 152–154. ISBN 978-0195029901.
^ Buckner, Timothy Ryan (2005). "Constructing Identities on the Frontier of Slavery, Natchez Mississippi, 1760-1860" (PDF). p. 129. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
^ Pack p. 15
^ Blue p. 77
^ Tannahill p. 273
^ Pack p. 123
^ Chapter 6 "Supplementary Income," para.0661 "Extra and other issues," Ministry of Defence regulations
^ Blue p. 78
^ Mikkelson, Barbara (9 May 2006). "Body found in barrel". Urban Legends Reference Pages. Snopes.com. Archived from the original on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 15 January 2009.
^ Clarke p. 26
^ Blainey (1966)
^ Clarke p. 29
^ Blue p. 81–82
^ a b "The drink that nearly knocked me out with one sniff" by Nick Davis, BBC News, 6 September 2015
^ "At a temperance meeting recently held in New Zealand, an intemperate chief addressed the audience, to the surprise of all, in favor of banning rum from the country. Some rude-rum selling foreigners interrupted him with a sneer that he was the greatest drunkard in the region". From The Religious Monitor, or Evangelical Repository Vol. XIV, Hoffman & White, 1837–39, p. 480.
^ Selsky, Andrew (15 September 2003). "Age-old drink losing kick". The Miami Herald.
^ "Tourism Industry in Liberia". Uniboa.org. Retrieved 5 December 2009.
^ Surreptitious drug abuse and the new Liberian reality: an overview
^ Photo-article on Liberian village life
^ a b c d e Vaughan, Mark (1 June 1994). "Tropical Delights". Cigar Aficionado.
^ Cooper p. 54
^ "Manufacturing Rum". Archived from the original on 20 November 2003. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
^ Blue p. 80
^ Cooper p. 54–55
References[edit]
Blainey, Geoffrey (1966). The Tyranny of Distance: How Distance Shaped Australia's History. Sun Books, Australia. ISBN 978-0333338360.
Blue, Anthony Dias (2004). The Complete Book of Spirits : A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-054218-7.
Curtis, Wayne (2006). And a bottle of rum - a history of the New World in ten cocktails. Crown Publishers. p. 285. ISBN 9781400051670.
Clarke, Frank G. (2002). The History of Australia. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31498-5.
Cooper, Rosalind (1982). Spirits & Liqueurs. HPBooks. ISBN 0-89586-194-1.
Foley, Ray (2006). Bartending for Dummies: A reference for the Rest of Us. Wiley Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-470-05056-X.
Pack, James (1982). Nelson's Blood: The Story of Naval Rum. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-944-8.
Rorabaugh, W.J. (1981). The Alcoholic Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195029901.
Tannahill, Reay (1973). Food in History. Stein and Day. ISBN 0-8128-1437-1.
Further reading[edit]
Williams, Ian (2005). Rum: A Social and Sociable History of the Real Spirit of 1776. Nation Books. (extract)
Broom, Dave (2003). Rum. Abbeville Press.
Arkell, Julie (1999). Classic Rum. Prion Books.
Coulombe, Charles A (2004). Rum: The Epic Story of the Drink that Changed Conquered the World. Citadel Press.
Smith, Frederick (2005). Caribbean Rum: A Social and Economic History. University Press of Florida. (Introduction)
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Rum
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rum.
Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Rum.
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Rum
Wikisource-logo.svg "Rum". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the beverage. For other uses, see Rum (disambiguation).
Rum display in a liquor store
Government House rum, manufactured by the Virgin Islands Company distillery in St. Croix, circa 1941
Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane byproducts, such as molasses, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a clear liquid, is then usually aged in oak barrels.
The majority of the world's rum production occurs in the Caribbean and Latin America. Rum is also produced in Scotland, Austria, Spain, Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, the Philippines, India, Reunion Island, Mauritius, South Africa, Taiwan, Thailand, Japan, the United States, and Canada.
Rums are produced in various grades. Light rums are commonly used in cocktails, whereas "golden" and "dark" rums were typically consumed straight or neat, on the rocks, or used for cooking, but are now commonly consumed with mixers. Premium rums are also available, made to be consumed either straight or iced.
Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies as well as in The Maritimes and Newfoundland. This beverage has famous associations with the Royal Navy (where it was mixed with water or beer to make grog) and piracy (where it was consumed as bumbo). Rum has also served as a popular medium of economic exchange, used to help fund enterprises such as slavery (see Triangular trade), organized crime, and military insurgencies (e.g., the American Revolution and Australia's Rum Rebellion).
Contents
1Etymology
2History
2.1Origins
2.2Colonial America
2.3Naval rum
2.4Colonial Australia
3Categorization
3.1Regional variations
3.2Grades
4Production method
4.1Fermentation
4.2Distillation
4.3Aging and blending
5In cuisine
6See also
7Notes
8References
9Further reading
10External links
Etymology[edit]
The Mount Gay Rum visitors centre claims to be the world's oldest remaining rum company, with earliest confirmed deed from 1703.
The origin of the word "rum" is generally unclear. In an 1824 essay about the word's origin, Samuel Morewood, a British etymologist, suggested it might be from the British slang term for "the best", as in "having a rum time." He wrote:
As spirits, extracted from molasses, could not well be ranked under the name whiskey, brandy, or arrack, it would be called rum, to denote its excellence or superior quality.[1]
Given the harsh taste of early rum, this is unlikely. Morewood later suggested another possibility: that it was taken from the last syllable of the Latin word for sugar, saccharum, an explanation commonly heard today.[1]
Other etymologists have mentioned the Romani word rum, meaning "strong" or "potent". These words have been linked to the ramboozle and rumfustian, both popular British drinks in the mid-17th century. However, neither was made with rum, but rather eggs, ale, wine, sugar, and various spices. The most probable origin is as a truncated version of rumbullion or rumbustion.[2] Both words surfaced in English about the same time as rum did (Joan Coromines states 1651 as the first recording of "rumbullion", and 1654 for "rum" -1770 for the first recording in Spanish of ron), and were slang terms for "tumult" or "uproar". This is a far more convincing explanation, and brings the image of fractious men fighting in entanglements at island tippling houses, which are early versions of the bar.[1]
Another claim is the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, a drinking glass.[3] Other options include contractions of the words iterum, Latin for "again, a second time", or arôme, French for aroma.[4]
Regardless of the original source, the name was already in common use by 1654, when the General Court of Connecticut ordered the confiscations of "whatsoever Barbados liquors, commonly called rum, kill devil and the like".[5] A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor "whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc."[4]
In current usage, the name used for a rum is often based on its place of origin.
For rums from Spanish-speaking locales, the word ron is used. A ron añejo ("old rum") indicates a rum that has been significantly aged and is often used for premium products.
Rhum is the term that typically distinguishes rum made from fresh sugar cane juice from rum made from molasses in French-speaking locales like Martinique.[6] A rhum vieux ("old rum") is an aged French rum that meets several other requirements.
Some of the many other names for rum are Nelson's blood, kill-devil, demon water, pirate's drink, navy neaters, and Barbados water.[7] A version of rum from Newfoundland is referred to by the name screech, while some low-grade West Indies rums are called tafia.[8]
History[edit]
Origins[edit]
The precursors to rum date back to antiquity. Development of fermented drinks produced from sugarcane juice is believed to have first occurred either in ancient India or in China,[2] and to have spread from there. An example of such an early drink is brum. Produced by the Malay people, brum dates back thousands of years.[9] Marco Polo also recorded a 14th-century account of a "very good wine of sugar" that was offered to him in the area that became modern-day Iran.[2]
The first distillation of rum took place on the sugarcane plantations of the Caribbean in the 17th century. Plantation slaves first discovered molasses, a byproduct of the sugar refining process, could be fermented into alcohol.[10] Later, distillation of these alcoholic byproducts concentrated the alcohol and removed impurities, producing the first true rums. Tradition suggests rum first originated on the island of Barbados. However, in the decade of the 1620s, rum production was recorded in Brazil.[11] A liquid identified as rum has been found in a tin bottle found on the Swedish warship Vasa, which sank in 1628.[12]
A 1651 document from Barbados stated, "The chief fuddling they make in the island is Rumbullion, alias Kill-Divil, and this is made of sugar canes distilled, a hot, hellish, and terrible liquor."[10]
Colonial America[edit]
Pirates carrying rum to shore to purchase slaves as depicted in The Pirates Own Book by Charles Ellms
After rum's development in the Caribbean, the drink's popularity spread to Colonial North America. To support the demand for the drink, the first rum distillery in the British colonies of North America was set up in 1664 on present-day Staten Island. Boston, Massachusetts had a distillery three years later.[13] The manufacture of rum became early Colonial New England's largest and most prosperous industry.[14] New England became a distilling center due to the technical, metalworking and cooperage skills and abundant lumber; the rum produced there was lighter, more like whiskey. Rhode Island rum even joined gold as an accepted currency in Europe for a period of time.[15] Estimates of rum consumption in the American colonies before the American Revolutionary War had every man, woman, or child drinking an average of 3 imperial gallons (14 l) of rum each year.[16]
To support this demand for the molasses to produce rum, along with the increasing demand for sugar in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries, a labor source to work the sugar plantations in the Caribbean was needed. A triangular trade was established between Africa, the Caribbean, and the colonies to help support this need.[17] The exchange of slaves, molasses, and rum was quite profitable, and the disruption to the trade caused by the Sugar Act in 1764 may have even helped cause the American Revolution.[16] In the slave trade, rum was also used as a medium of exchange. For example, the slave Venture Smith, whose history was later published, had been purchased in Africa for four gallons of rum plus a piece of calico.
The popularity of rum continued after the American Revolution, with George Washington insisting on a barrel of Barbados rum at his 1789 inauguration.[18]
Rum started to play an important role in the political system; candidates attempted to influence the outcome of an election through their generosity with rum. The people would attend the hustings to see which candidate appeared more generous. The candidate was expected to drink with the people to show he was independent and truly a republican. In the 1833 Mississippi state senate election, one candidate, Judge Edward Turner, poured his drinks and socialized with the people. He was more personal and it appeared as if he was going to win. The other candidate, a Methodist parson named Dick Stewart, announced he would not be pouring their drinks and they could have as much as they wanted; Dick Stewart won.[19][20]
Eventually the restrictions on sugar imports from the British islands of the Caribbean, combined with the development of American whiskey, led to a decline in the drink's popularity in North America.
Naval rum[edit]
See also: Rum ration
Wrens during World War II serving rum to a sailor from a tub inscribed "The King God Bless Him" - Robert Sargent Austin
Rum grog
Rum's association with piracy began with British privateers trading on the valuable commodity. As some of the privateers became pirates and buccaneers, their fondness for rum remained, the association between the two only being strengthened by literary works such as Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island.[21]
The association of rum with the Royal Navy began in 1655, when the British fleet captured the island of Jamaica. With the availability of domestically produced rum, the British changed the daily ration of liquor given to seamen from French brandy to rum.[22]
Navy Rum was originally a blended rum mixed from rums locally produced in the West Indies. It varies in strength from 95.5 Proof (47.75% ABV) to 114 Proof (57% ABV).
While the ration was originally given neat, or mixed with lime juice, the practice of watering down the rum began around 1740. To help minimize the effect of the alcohol on his sailors, Admiral Edward Vernon had the rum ration watered producing a mixture that became known as grog. While many believe the term was coined in honor of the grogram cloak Admiral Vernon wore in rough weather,[23] the term predates his famous order. It probably originates in the West Indies, perhaps of African etymology. The Royal Navy continued to give its sailors a daily rum ration, known as a "tot," until the practice was abolished after 31 July 1970.[24]
Today, a tot (totty) of rum is still issued on special occasions, using an order to "splice the mainbrace", which may only be given by the Queen, a member of the royal family or, on certain occasions, the admiralty board in the UK, with similar restrictions in other Commonwealth navies.[25] Recently, such occasions have included royal marriages or birthdays, or special anniversaries. In the days of daily rum rations, the order to "splice the mainbrace" meant double rations would be issued.
A legend involving naval rum and Horatio Nelson says that following his victory and death at the Battle of Trafalgar, Nelson's body was preserved in a cask of rum to allow transportation back to England. Upon arrival, however, the cask was opened and found to be empty. The [pickled] body was removed and, upon inspection, it was discovered that the sailors had drilled a hole in the bottom of the cask and drunk all the rum, hence the term "Nelson's blood" being used to describe rum. It also serves as the basis for the term tapping the admiral being used to describe surreptitiously sucking liquor from a cask through a straw. The details of the story are disputed, as many historians claim the cask contained French brandy, whilst others claim instead the term originated from a toast to Admiral Nelson.[26] Variations of the story, involving different notable corpses, have been in circulation for many years. The official record states merely that the body was placed in "refined spirits" and does not go into further detail.[27]
The Royal New Zealand Navy was the last naval force to give sailors a free daily tot of rum. The Royal Canadian Navy still gives a rum ration on special occasions; the rum is usually provided out of the commanding officer's fund, and is 150 proof (75%). It is consumed on the order "up spirits".[citation needed] The order to "splice the mainbrace" (i.e. take rum) can be given by the Queen as commander-in-chief, as occurred on 29 June 2010, when she gave the order to the Royal Canadian Navy as part of the celebration of their 100th anniversary.
Rum was also occasionally consumed mixed with gunpowder, either to test the proof of an alcohol ration (if the alcohol was diluted, the gunpowder would not ignite after being soaked with alcohol) or to seal a vow or show loyalty to a rebellion.[citation needed]
Colonial Australia[edit]
Beenleigh Rum Distillery, on the banks of the Albert River near Brisbane, Queensland, circa 1912
See also: Rum Rebellion
Rum became an important trade good in the early period of the colony of New South Wales. The value of rum was based upon the lack of coinage among the population of the colony, and due to the drink's ability to allow its consumer to temporarily forget about the lack of creature comforts available in the new colony. The value of rum was such that convict settlers could be induced to work the lands owned by officers of the New South Wales Corps. Due to rum's popularity among the settlers, the colony gained a reputation for drunkenness, though their alcohol consumption was less than levels commonly consumed in England at the time.[28]
Australia was so far away from Britain that the convict colony, established in 1788, faced severe food shortages, compounded by poor conditions for growing crops and the shortage of livestock. Eventually it was realized that it might be cheaper for India, instead of Britain, to supply the settlement of Sydney. By 1817, two out of every three ships which left Sydney went to Java or India, and cargoes from Bengal fed and equipped the colony. Casks of Bengal Rum (which was reputed to be stronger than Jamaican Rum, and not so sweet) were brought back in the depths of nearly every ship from India — although taken to shore clandestinely—to the dismay of the governors. Britons living in India grew wealthy through sending ships to Sydney "laden half with rice and half with bad spirits."[29]
Rum was intimately involved in the only military takeover of an Australian government, known as the Rum Rebellion. When William Bligh became governor of the colony, he attempted to remedy the perceived problem with drunkenness by outlawing the use of rum as a medium of exchange, but in response to Bligh's attempt to regulate the use of rum, in 1808, the New South Wales Corps marched with fixed bayonets to Government House and placed Bligh under arrest. The mutineers continued to control the colony until the arrival of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810.[30]
Categorization[edit]
Dividing rum into meaningful groupings is complicated because no single standard exists for what constitutes rum. Instead, rum is defined by the varying rules and laws of the nations producing the spirit. The differences in definitions include issues such as spirit proof, minimum aging, and even naming standards.
Examples of the differences in proof is Colombia, requiring their rums possess a minimum alcohol content of 50% alcohol by volume (ABV)[citation needed], while Chile and Venezuela require only a minimum of 40% ABV. Mexico requires rum be aged a minimum of eight months; the Dominican Republic, Panama and Venezuela require two years. Naming standards also vary. Argentina defines rums as white, gold, light, and extra light. Grenada and Barbados uses the terms white, overproof, and matured, while the United States defines rum, rum liqueur, and flavored rum.[31] In Australia, rum is divided into dark or red rum (underproof known as UP, overproof known as OP, and triple distilled) and white rum.
Despite these differences in standards and nomenclature, the following divisions are provided to help show the wide variety of rums produced.
Regional variations[edit]
The Bacardi building in Havana, Cuba
Within the Caribbean, each island or production area has a unique style. For the most part, these styles can be grouped by the language traditionally spoken. Due to the overwhelming influence of Puerto Rican rum, most rum consumed in the United States is produced in the "Spanish-speaking" style.
English-speaking islands and countries are known for darker rums with a fuller taste that retains a greater amount of the underlying molasses flavor. Rums from Antigua, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Barbados, Saint Lucia, Belize, Bermuda, Saint Kitts, the Demerara region of Guyana, and Jamaica are typical of this style.
In Jamaica particularly, a version called "Rude Rum" or "John Crow Batty" is served in some places and it is reportedly much stronger in alcohol content being listed as one of the 10 strongest drinks in the world, while it might also contain other intoxicants.[32] Ska star Prince Buster, who had a hit called "Rum and Coca-Cola", claimed in an interview that "when water was added [to rude rum] as a chaser the brew was so potent, smoke would rise out of the glass".[32] The term, denoting home made, strong rum, appears in New Zealand since at least the early 19th century.[33]
French-speaking islands are best known for their agricultural rums (rhum agricole). These rums, being produced exclusively from sugar cane juice, retain a greater amount of the original flavor of the sugar cane and are generally more expensive than molasses-based rums. Rums from Haiti, Guadeloupe and Martinique are typical of this style.
Spanish-speaking islands and countries traditionally produce añejo rums with a fairly smooth taste. Rums from Cuba, Guatemala, Panama, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, Colombia and Venezuela are typical of this style. Rum from the U.S. Virgin Islands is also of this style. The Canary Islands produces honey rum known as ron miel de Canarias and carries a geographical designation.
Cachaça is a spirit similar to rum that is produced in Brazil. Some countries, including the United States, classify cachaça as a type of rum. Seco, from Panama, is also a spirit similar to rum, but also similar to vodka since it is triple distilled.
Mexico produces a number of brands of light and dark rum, as well as other less-expensive flavored and unflavored sugarcane-based liquors, such as aguardiente de caña and charanda.
A spirit known as aguardiente, distilled from molasses and often infused with anise, with additional sugarcane juice added after distillation, is produced in Central America and northern South America.[34]
In West Africa, and particularly in Liberia, 'cane juice' (also known as Liberian rum[35] or simply CJ within Liberia itself[36]) is a cheap, strong spirit distilled from sugarcane, which can be as strong as 43% ABV [86 proof].[37] A refined cane spirit has also been produced in South Africa since the 1950s, simply known as cane.
Within Europe, in the Czech Republic a similar spirit made from sugar beet is known as Tuzemak.
In Germany, a cheap substitute for genuine dark rum is called Rum-Verschnitt (literally: blended or "cut" rum). This distilled beverage is made of genuine dark rum (often from Jamaica), rectified spirit, and water. Very often, caramel coloring is used, too. The relative amount of genuine rum it contains can be quite low, since the legal minimum is at only 5%. In Austria, a similar rum called Inländerrum or domestic rum is available. However, Austrian Inländerrum is always a spiced rum, such as the brand Stroh; German Rum-Verschnitt, in contrast, is never spiced or flavored.
Grades[edit]
The grades and variations used to describe rum depend on the location where a rum was produced. Despite these variations, the following terms are frequently used to describe various types of rum:
Dark rums, also known by their particular color, such as brown, black, or red rums, are classes a grade darker than gold rums. They are usually made from caramelized sugar or molasses. They are generally aged longer, in heavily charred barrels, giving them much stronger flavors than either light or gold rums, and hints of spices can be detected, along with a strong molasses or caramel overtone. They commonly provide substance in rum drinks, as well as color. In addition, dark rum is the type most commonly used in cooking. Most dark rums come from areas such as Jamaica, Haiti, and Martinique.
Flavored rums are infused with flavors of fruits, such as banana, mango, orange, pineapple, coconut, starfruit or lime. These are generally less than 40% ABV (80 proof). They mostly serve to flavor similarly-themed tropical drinks but are also often drunk neat or with ice. This infusion of flavors occurs after fermentation and distillation. Various chemicals are added to the alcohol to simulate the tastes of food.
Gold rums, also called "amber" rums, are medium-bodied rums that are generally aged. These gain their dark color from aging in wooden barrels (usually the charred, white oak barrels that are the byproduct of Bourbon whiskey). They have more flavor and are stronger-tasting than light rum, and can be considered midway between light rum and the darker varieties.
Light rums, also referred to as "silver" or "white" rums, in general, have very little flavor aside from a general sweetness. Light rums are sometimes filtered after aging to remove any color. The Brazilian cachaça is generally this type, but some varieties are more akin to "gold rums". The majority of light rums come from Puerto Rico. Their milder flavors make them popular for use in mixed drinks, as opposed to drinking them straight.
Overproof rums are much higher than the standard 40% ABV (80 proof), with many as high as 75% (150 proof) to 80% (160 proof) available. Two examples are Bacardi 151 or Pitorro moonshine. They are usually used in mixed drinks.
Premium rums, as with other sipping spirits such as Cognac and Scotch, are in a special market category. These are generally from boutique brands that sell carefully produced and aged rums. They have more character and flavor than their "mixing" counterparts and are generally consumed straight.
Spiced rums obtain their flavors through the addition of spices and, sometimes, caramel. Most are darker in color, and based on gold rums. Some are significantly darker, while many cheaper brands are made from inexpensive white rums and darkened with caramel color. Among the spices added are cinnamon, rosemary, absinthe/aniseed, or pepper.
Production method[edit]
Unlike some other spirits, rum has no defined production methods. Instead, rum production is based on traditional styles that vary between locations and distillers.
Fermentation[edit]
Sugarcane is harvested to make sugarcane juice and molasses.
Artisanal Rum distillery along the N7 road
Most rum is produced from molasses, which is made from sugarcane. A rum's quality is dependent on the quality and variety of the sugar cane that was used to create it. The sugar cane's quality depends on the soil type and climate that it was grown in. Within the Caribbean, much of this molasses is from Brazil.[18] A notable exception is the French-speaking islands, where sugarcane juice is the preferred base ingredient.[2] In Brazil itself, the distilled alcoholic beverage derived from cane juice is distinguished from rum and called cachaça.
Yeast and water are added to the base ingredient to start the fermentation process. While some rum producers allow wild yeasts to perform the fermentation, most use specific strains of yeast to help provide a consistent taste and predictable fermentation time.[38] Dunder, the yeast-rich foam from previous fermentations, is the traditional yeast source in Jamaica.[39] "The yeast employed will determine the final taste and aroma profile," says Jamaican master blender Joy Spence.[2] Distillers who make lighter rums, such as Bacardi, prefer to use faster-working yeasts.[2] Use of slower-working yeasts causes more esters to accumulate during fermentation, allowing for a fuller-tasting rum.[38]
Fermentation products like 2-ethyl-3-methyl butyric acid and esters like ethyl butanoate and ethyl hexanoate give rise to the sweet and fruitiness of rum.[1]
Distillation[edit]
As with all other aspects of rum production, no standard method is used for distillation. While some producers work in batches using pot stills, most rum production is done using column still distillation.[38] Pot still output contains more congeners than the output from column stills, so produces fuller-tasting rums.[2]
Aging and blending[edit]
Many countries require rum to be aged for at least one year. This aging is commonly performed in used bourbon casks,[38] but may also be performed in other types of wooden casks or stainless steel tanks. The aging process determines the color of the rum. When aged in oak casks, it becomes dark, whereas rum aged in stainless steel tanks remains virtually colorless.
Due to the tropical climate, common to most rum-producing areas, rum matures at a much higher rate than is typical for whisky or brandy. An indication of this higher rate is the angels' share, or amount of product lost to evaporation. While products aged in France or Scotland see about 2% loss each year, tropical rum producers may see as much as 10%.[38]
After aging, rum is normally blended to ensure a consistent flavor. Blending is the final step in the rum-making process.[40] As part of this blending process, light rums may be filtered to remove any color gained during aging. For darker rums, caramel may be added to adjust the color of the final product.
In cuisine[edit]
Besides rum punches, cocktails such as the Cuba libre and daiquiri have well-known stories of their invention in the Caribbean. Tiki culture in the U.S. helped expand rum's horizons with inventions such as the mai tai and zombie. Other well-known cocktails containing rum include the piña colada, a drink made popular in America by Rupert Holmes' song "Escape (The Piña Colada Song)",[41] and the mojito. Cold-weather drinks made with rum include the rum toddy and hot buttered rum.[42]
A number of local specialties also use rum, including Bermuda's Dark 'N' Stormy (Gosling's Black Seal rum with ginger beer), the painkiller from the British Virgin Islands, and a New Orleans cocktail known as the Hurricane. Jagertee is a mixture of rum and black tea popular in colder parts of Central Europe and served on special occasions in the British Army, where it is called Gunfire. Ti' Punch, French Creole for "petit punch", is a traditional drink in parts of the French West Indies.
Rum may also be used as a base in the manufacture of liqueurs and syrups, such as falernum.
Rum is used in a number of cooked dishes as a flavoring agent in items such as rum balls or rum cakes. It is commonly used to macerate fruit used in fruitcakes and is also used in marinades for some Caribbean dishes. Rum is also used in the preparation of rumtopf, bananas Foster and some hard sauces. Rum is sometimes mixed into ice cream, often with raisins, and in baking it is occasionally used in Joe Froggers, a type of cookie from New England
See also[edit]
iconLiquor portal
Drink portal
Cachaça
Charanda
Clairin
List of rum producers
Rhum agricole
Rum cake
Rum cocktails
Rum row
Rum-running
Tafia
Notes[edit]
^ a b c Curtis (2006), pp. 34–35
^ a b c d e f g Pacult, F. Paul (July 2002). "Mapping Rum By Region". Wine Enthusiast Magazine.
^ Blue, p. 72–73
^ a b Blue p. 73
^ "The West Indies Rum Distillery Limited". WIRD Ltd. 2009. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
^ Wayne Curtis. "The Five Biggest Rum Myths". Liquor.com.
^ Rajiv. M (12 March 2003). "A Caribbean drink". The Hindu.
^ Curtis (2006), p.14
^ Blue p. 72
^ a b Blue p. 70
^ Cavalcante, Messias Soares. A verdadeira história da cachaça. São Paulo: Sá Editora, 2011. 608p. ISBN 978-85-88193-62-8
^ "Arkeologerna: Skatter i havet". UR Play.
^ Blue p. 74
^ Roueché, Berton. Alcohol in Human Culture. in: Lucia, Salvatore P. (Ed.) Alcohol and Civilization New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963 p. 178
^ Blue p. 76
^ a b Tannahill p. 295
^ Tannahill p. 296
^ a b Frost, Doug (6 January 2005). "Rum makers distill unsavory history into fresh products". San Francisco Chronicle.
^ Rorabaugh, W.J. (1981). The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition. Oxford University Press. pp. 152–154. ISBN 978-0195029901.
^ Buckner, Timothy Ryan (2005). "Constructing Identities on the Frontier of Slavery, Natchez Mississippi, 1760-1860" (PDF). p. 129. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
^ Pack p. 15
^ Blue p. 77
^ Tannahill p. 273
^ Pack p. 123
^ Chapter 6 "Supplementary Income," para.0661 "Extra and other issues," Ministry of Defence regulations
^ Blue p. 78
^ Mikkelson, Barbara (9 May 2006). "Body found in barrel". Urban Legends Reference Pages. Snopes.com. Archived from the original on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 15 January 2009.
^ Clarke p. 26
^ Blainey (1966)
^ Clarke p. 29
^ Blue p. 81–82
^ a b "The drink that nearly knocked me out with one sniff" by Nick Davis, BBC News, 6 September 2015
^ "At a temperance meeting recently held in New Zealand, an intemperate chief addressed the audience, to the surprise of all, in favor of banning rum from the country. Some rude-rum selling foreigners interrupted him with a sneer that he was the greatest drunkard in the region". From The Religious Monitor, or Evangelical Repository Vol. XIV, Hoffman & White, 1837–39, p. 480.
^ Selsky, Andrew (15 September 2003). "Age-old drink losing kick". The Miami Herald.
^ "Tourism Industry in Liberia". Uniboa.org. Retrieved 5 December 2009.
^ Surreptitious drug abuse and the new Liberian reality: an overview
^ Photo-article on Liberian village life
^ a b c d e Vaughan, Mark (1 June 1994). "Tropical Delights". Cigar Aficionado.
^ Cooper p. 54
^ "Manufacturing Rum". Archived from the original on 20 November 2003. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
^ Blue p. 80
^ Cooper p. 54–55
References[edit]
Blainey, Geoffrey (1966). The Tyranny of Distance: How Distance Shaped Australia's History. Sun Books, Australia. ISBN 978-0333338360.
Blue, Anthony Dias (2004). The Complete Book of Spirits : A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-054218-7.
Curtis, Wayne (2006). And a bottle of rum - a history of the New World in ten cocktails. Crown Publishers. p. 285. ISBN 9781400051670.
Clarke, Frank G. (2002). The History of Australia. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31498-5.
Cooper, Rosalind (1982). Spirits & Liqueurs. HPBooks. ISBN 0-89586-194-1.
Foley, Ray (2006). Bartending for Dummies: A reference for the Rest of Us. Wiley Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-470-05056-X.
Pack, James (1982). Nelson's Blood: The Story of Naval Rum. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-944-8.
Rorabaugh, W.J. (1981). The Alcoholic Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195029901.
Tannahill, Reay (1973). Food in History. Stein and Day. ISBN 0-8128-1437-1.
Further reading[edit]
Williams, Ian (2005). Rum: A Social and Sociable History of the Real Spirit of 1776. Nation Books. (extract)
Broom, Dave (2003). Rum. Abbeville Press.
Arkell, Julie (1999). Classic Rum. Prion Books.
Coulombe, Charles A (2004). Rum: The Epic Story of the Drink that Changed Conquered the World. Citadel Press.
Smith, Frederick (2005). Caribbean Rum: A Social and Economic History. University Press of Florida. (Introduction)
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Rum
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rum.
Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Rum.
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Rum
Wikisource-logo.svg "Rum". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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Rum
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the beverage. For other uses, see Rum (disambiguation).
Rum display in a liquor store
Government House rum, manufactured by the Virgin Islands Company distillery in St. Croix, circa 1941
Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane byproducts, such as molasses, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a clear liquid, is then usually aged in oak barrels.
The majority of the world's rum production occurs in the Caribbean and Latin America. Rum is also produced in Scotland, Austria, Spain, Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, the Philippines, India, Reunion Island, Mauritius, South Africa, Taiwan, Thailand, Japan, the United States, and Canada.
Rums are produced in various grades. Light rums are commonly used in cocktails, whereas "golden" and "dark" rums were typically consumed straight or neat, on the rocks, or used for cooking, but are now commonly consumed with mixers. Premium rums are also available, made to be consumed either straight or iced.
Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies as well as in The Maritimes and Newfoundland. This beverage has famous associations with the Royal Navy (where it was mixed with water or beer to make grog) and piracy (where it was consumed as bumbo). Rum has also served as a popular medium of economic exchange, used to help fund enterprises such as slavery (see Triangular trade), organized crime, and military insurgencies (e.g., the American Revolution and Australia's Rum Rebellion).
Contents
1Etymology
2History
2.1Origins
2.2Colonial America
2.3Naval rum
2.4Colonial Australia
3Categorization
3.1Regional variations
3.2Grades
4Production method
4.1Fermentation
4.2Distillation
4.3Aging and blending
5In cuisine
6See also
7Notes
8References
9Further reading
10External links
Etymology[edit]
The Mount Gay Rum visitors centre claims to be the world's oldest remaining rum company, with earliest confirmed deed from 1703.
The origin of the word "rum" is generally unclear. In an 1824 essay about the word's origin, Samuel Morewood, a British etymologist, suggested it might be from the British slang term for "the best", as in "having a rum time." He wrote:
As spirits, extracted from molasses, could not well be ranked under the name whiskey, brandy, or arrack, it would be called rum, to denote its excellence or superior quality.[1]
Given the harsh taste of early rum, this is unlikely. Morewood later suggested another possibility: that it was taken from the last syllable of the Latin word for sugar, saccharum, an explanation commonly heard today.[1]
Other etymologists have mentioned the Romani word rum, meaning "strong" or "potent". These words have been linked to the ramboozle and rumfustian, both popular British drinks in the mid-17th century. However, neither was made with rum, but rather eggs, ale, wine, sugar, and various spices. The most probable origin is as a truncated version of rumbullion or rumbustion.[2] Both words surfaced in English about the same time as rum did (Joan Coromines states 1651 as the first recording of "rumbullion", and 1654 for "rum" -1770 for the first recording in Spanish of ron), and were slang terms for "tumult" or "uproar". This is a far more convincing explanation, and brings the image of fractious men fighting in entanglements at island tippling houses, which are early versions of the bar.[1]
Another claim is the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, a drinking glass.[3] Other options include contractions of the words iterum, Latin for "again, a second time", or arôme, French for aroma.[4]
Regardless of the original source, the name was already in common use by 1654, when the General Court of Connecticut ordered the confiscations of "whatsoever Barbados liquors, commonly called rum, kill devil and the like".[5] A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor "whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc."[4]
In current usage, the name used for a rum is often based on its place of origin.
For rums from Spanish-speaking locales, the word ron is used. A ron añejo ("old rum") indicates a rum that has been significantly aged and is often used for premium products.
Rhum is the term that typically distinguishes rum made from fresh sugar cane juice from rum made from molasses in French-speaking locales like Martinique.[6] A rhum vieux ("old rum") is an aged French rum that meets several other requirements.
Some of the many other names for rum are Nelson's blood, kill-devil, demon water, pirate's drink, navy neaters, and Barbados water.[7] A version of rum from Newfoundland is referred to by the name screech, while some low-grade West Indies rums are called tafia.[8]
History[edit]
Origins[edit]
The precursors to rum date back to antiquity. Development of fermented drinks produced from sugarcane juice is believed to have first occurred either in ancient India or in China,[2] and to have spread from there. An example of such an early drink is brum. Produced by the Malay people, brum dates back thousands of years.[9] Marco Polo also recorded a 14th-century account of a "very good wine of sugar" that was offered to him in the area that became modern-day Iran.[2]
The first distillation of rum took place on the sugarcane plantations of the Caribbean in the 17th century. Plantation slaves first discovered molasses, a byproduct of the sugar refining process, could be fermented into alcohol.[10] Later, distillation of these alcoholic byproducts concentrated the alcohol and removed impurities, producing the first true rums. Tradition suggests rum first originated on the island of Barbados. However, in the decade of the 1620s, rum production was recorded in Brazil.[11] A liquid identified as rum has been found in a tin bottle found on the Swedish warship Vasa, which sank in 1628.[12]
A 1651 document from Barbados stated, "The chief fuddling they make in the island is Rumbullion, alias Kill-Divil, and this is made of sugar canes distilled, a hot, hellish, and terrible liquor."[10]
Colonial America[edit]
Pirates carrying rum to shore to purchase slaves as depicted in The Pirates Own Book by Charles Ellms
After rum's development in the Caribbean, the drink's popularity spread to Colonial North America. To support the demand for the drink, the first rum distillery in the British colonies of North America was set up in 1664 on present-day Staten Island. Boston, Massachusetts had a distillery three years later.[13] The manufacture of rum became early Colonial New England's largest and most prosperous industry.[14] New England became a distilling center due to the technical, metalworking and cooperage skills and abundant lumber; the rum produced there was lighter, more like whiskey. Rhode Island rum even joined gold as an accepted currency in Europe for a period of time.[15] Estimates of rum consumption in the American colonies before the American Revolutionary War had every man, woman, or child drinking an average of 3 imperial gallons (14 l) of rum each year.[16]
To support this demand for the molasses to produce rum, along with the increasing demand for sugar in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries, a labor source to work the sugar plantations in the Caribbean was needed. A triangular trade was established between Africa, the Caribbean, and the colonies to help support this need.[17] The exchange of slaves, molasses, and rum was quite profitable, and the disruption to the trade caused by the Sugar Act in 1764 may have even helped cause the American Revolution.[16] In the slave trade, rum was also used as a medium of exchange. For example, the slave Venture Smith, whose history was later published, had been purchased in Africa for four gallons of rum plus a piece of calico.
The popularity of rum continued after the American Revolution, with George Washington insisting on a barrel of Barbados rum at his 1789 inauguration.[18]
Rum started to play an important role in the political system; candidates attempted to influence the outcome of an election through their generosity with rum. The people would attend the hustings to see which candidate appeared more generous. The candidate was expected to drink with the people to show he was independent and truly a republican. In the 1833 Mississippi state senate election, one candidate, Judge Edward Turner, poured his drinks and socialized with the people. He was more personal and it appeared as if he was going to win. The other candidate, a Methodist parson named Dick Stewart, announced he would not be pouring their drinks and they could have as much as they wanted; Dick Stewart won.[19][20]
Eventually the restrictions on sugar imports from the British islands of the Caribbean, combined with the development of American whiskey, led to a decline in the drink's popularity in North America.
Naval rum[edit]
See also: Rum ration
Wrens during World War II serving rum to a sailor from a tub inscribed "The King God Bless Him" - Robert Sargent Austin
Rum grog
Rum's association with piracy began with British privateers trading on the valuable commodity. As some of the privateers became pirates and buccaneers, their fondness for rum remained, the association between the two only being strengthened by literary works such as Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island.[21]
The association of rum with the Royal Navy began in 1655, when the British fleet captured the island of Jamaica. With the availability of domestically produced rum, the British changed the daily ration of liquor given to seamen from French brandy to rum.[22]
Navy Rum was originally a blended rum mixed from rums locally produced in the West Indies. It varies in strength from 95.5 Proof (47.75% ABV) to 114 Proof (57% ABV).
While the ration was originally given neat, or mixed with lime juice, the practice of watering down the rum began around 1740. To help minimize the effect of the alcohol on his sailors, Admiral Edward Vernon had the rum ration watered producing a mixture that became known as grog. While many believe the term was coined in honor of the grogram cloak Admiral Vernon wore in rough weather,[23] the term predates his famous order. It probably originates in the West Indies, perhaps of African etymology. The Royal Navy continued to give its sailors a daily rum ration, known as a "tot," until the practice was abolished after 31 July 1970.[24]
Today, a tot (totty) of rum is still issued on special occasions, using an order to "splice the mainbrace", which may only be given by the Queen, a member of the royal family or, on certain occasions, the admiralty board in the UK, with similar restrictions in other Commonwealth navies.[25] Recently, such occasions have included royal marriages or birthdays, or special anniversaries. In the days of daily rum rations, the order to "splice the mainbrace" meant double rations would be issued.
A legend involving naval rum and Horatio Nelson says that following his victory and death at the Battle of Trafalgar, Nelson's body was preserved in a cask of rum to allow transportation back to England. Upon arrival, however, the cask was opened and found to be empty. The [pickled] body was removed and, upon inspection, it was discovered that the sailors had drilled a hole in the bottom of the cask and drunk all the rum, hence the term "Nelson's blood" being used to describe rum. It also serves as the basis for the term tapping the admiral being used to describe surreptitiously sucking liquor from a cask through a straw. The details of the story are disputed, as many historians claim the cask contained French brandy, whilst others claim instead the term originated from a toast to Admiral Nelson.[26] Variations of the story, involving different notable corpses, have been in circulation for many years. The official record states merely that the body was placed in "refined spirits" and does not go into further detail.[27]
The Royal New Zealand Navy was the last naval force to give sailors a free daily tot of rum. The Royal Canadian Navy still gives a rum ration on special occasions; the rum is usually provided out of the commanding officer's fund, and is 150 proof (75%). It is consumed on the order "up spirits".[citation needed] The order to "splice the mainbrace" (i.e. take rum) can be given by the Queen as commander-in-chief, as occurred on 29 June 2010, when she gave the order to the Royal Canadian Navy as part of the celebration of their 100th anniversary.
Rum was also occasionally consumed mixed with gunpowder, either to test the proof of an alcohol ration (if the alcohol was diluted, the gunpowder would not ignite after being soaked with alcohol) or to seal a vow or show loyalty to a rebellion.[citation needed]
Colonial Australia[edit]
Beenleigh Rum Distillery, on the banks of the Albert River near Brisbane, Queensland, circa 1912
See also: Rum Rebellion
Rum became an important trade good in the early period of the colony of New South Wales. The value of rum was based upon the lack of coinage among the population of the colony, and due to the drink's ability to allow its consumer to temporarily forget about the lack of creature comforts available in the new colony. The value of rum was such that convict settlers could be induced to work the lands owned by officers of the New South Wales Corps. Due to rum's popularity among the settlers, the colony gained a reputation for drunkenness, though their alcohol consumption was less than levels commonly consumed in England at the time.[28]
Australia was so far away from Britain that the convict colony, established in 1788, faced severe food shortages, compounded by poor conditions for growing crops and the shortage of livestock. Eventually it was realized that it might be cheaper for India, instead of Britain, to supply the settlement of Sydney. By 1817, two out of every three ships which left Sydney went to Java or India, and cargoes from Bengal fed and equipped the colony. Casks of Bengal Rum (which was reputed to be stronger than Jamaican Rum, and not so sweet) were brought back in the depths of nearly every ship from India — although taken to shore clandestinely—to the dismay of the governors. Britons living in India grew wealthy through sending ships to Sydney "laden half with rice and half with bad spirits."[29]
Rum was intimately involved in the only military takeover of an Australian government, known as the Rum Rebellion. When William Bligh became governor of the colony, he attempted to remedy the perceived problem with drunkenness by outlawing the use of rum as a medium of exchange, but in response to Bligh's attempt to regulate the use of rum, in 1808, the New South Wales Corps marched with fixed bayonets to Government House and placed Bligh under arrest. The mutineers continued to control the colony until the arrival of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810.[30]
Categorization[edit]
Dividing rum into meaningful groupings is complicated because no single standard exists for what constitutes rum. Instead, rum is defined by the varying rules and laws of the nations producing the spirit. The differences in definitions include issues such as spirit proof, minimum aging, and even naming standards.
Examples of the differences in proof is Colombia, requiring their rums possess a minimum alcohol content of 50% alcohol by volume (ABV)[citation needed], while Chile and Venezuela require only a minimum of 40% ABV. Mexico requires rum be aged a minimum of eight months; the Dominican Republic, Panama and Venezuela require two years. Naming standards also vary. Argentina defines rums as white, gold, light, and extra light. Grenada and Barbados uses the terms white, overproof, and matured, while the United States defines rum, rum liqueur, and flavored rum.[31] In Australia, rum is divided into dark or red rum (underproof known as UP, overproof known as OP, and triple distilled) and white rum.
Despite these differences in standards and nomenclature, the following divisions are provided to help show the wide variety of rums produced.
Regional variations[edit]
The Bacardi building in Havana, Cuba
Within the Caribbean, each island or production area has a unique style. For the most part, these styles can be grouped by the language traditionally spoken. Due to the overwhelming influence of Puerto Rican rum, most rum consumed in the United States is produced in the "Spanish-speaking" style.
English-speaking islands and countries are known for darker rums with a fuller taste that retains a greater amount of the underlying molasses flavor. Rums from Antigua, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Barbados, Saint Lucia, Belize, Bermuda, Saint Kitts, the Demerara region of Guyana, and Jamaica are typical of this style.
In Jamaica particularly, a version called "Rude Rum" or "John Crow Batty" is served in some places and it is reportedly much stronger in alcohol content being listed as one of the 10 strongest drinks in the world, while it might also contain other intoxicants.[32] Ska star Prince Buster, who had a hit called "Rum and Coca-Cola", claimed in an interview that "when water was added [to rude rum] as a chaser the brew was so potent, smoke would rise out of the glass".[32] The term, denoting home made, strong rum, appears in New Zealand since at least the early 19th century.[33]
French-speaking islands are best known for their agricultural rums (rhum agricole). These rums, being produced exclusively from sugar cane juice, retain a greater amount of the original flavor of the sugar cane and are generally more expensive than molasses-based rums. Rums from Haiti, Guadeloupe and Martinique are typical of this style.
Spanish-speaking islands and countries traditionally produce añejo rums with a fairly smooth taste. Rums from Cuba, Guatemala, Panama, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, Colombia and Venezuela are typical of this style. Rum from the U.S. Virgin Islands is also of this style. The Canary Islands produces honey rum known as ron miel de Canarias and carries a geographical designation.
Cachaça is a spirit similar to rum that is produced in Brazil. Some countries, including the United States, classify cachaça as a type of rum. Seco, from Panama, is also a spirit similar to rum, but also similar to vodka since it is triple distilled.
Mexico produces a number of brands of light and dark rum, as well as other less-expensive flavored and unflavored sugarcane-based liquors, such as aguardiente de caña and charanda.
A spirit known as aguardiente, distilled from molasses and often infused with anise, with additional sugarcane juice added after distillation, is produced in Central America and northern South America.[34]
In West Africa, and particularly in Liberia, 'cane juice' (also known as Liberian rum[35] or simply CJ within Liberia itself[36]) is a cheap, strong spirit distilled from sugarcane, which can be as strong as 43% ABV [86 proof].[37] A refined cane spirit has also been produced in South Africa since the 1950s, simply known as cane.
Within Europe, in the Czech Republic a similar spirit made from sugar beet is known as Tuzemak.
In Germany, a cheap substitute for genuine dark rum is called Rum-Verschnitt (literally: blended or "cut" rum). This distilled beverage is made of genuine dark rum (often from Jamaica), rectified spirit, and water. Very often, caramel coloring is used, too. The relative amount of genuine rum it contains can be quite low, since the legal minimum is at only 5%. In Austria, a similar rum called Inländerrum or domestic rum is available. However, Austrian Inländerrum is always a spiced rum, such as the brand Stroh; German Rum-Verschnitt, in contrast, is never spiced or flavored.
Grades[edit]
The grades and variations used to describe rum depend on the location where a rum was produced. Despite these variations, the following terms are frequently used to describe various types of rum:
Dark rums, also known by their particular color, such as brown, black, or red rums, are classes a grade darker than gold rums. They are usually made from caramelized sugar or molasses. They are generally aged longer, in heavily charred barrels, giving them much stronger flavors than either light or gold rums, and hints of spices can be detected, along with a strong molasses or caramel overtone. They commonly provide substance in rum drinks, as well as color. In addition, dark rum is the type most commonly used in cooking. Most dark rums come from areas such as Jamaica, Haiti, and Martinique.
Flavored rums are infused with flavors of fruits, such as banana, mango, orange, pineapple, coconut, starfruit or lime. These are generally less than 40% ABV (80 proof). They mostly serve to flavor similarly-themed tropical drinks but are also often drunk neat or with ice. This infusion of flavors occurs after fermentation and distillation. Various chemicals are added to the alcohol to simulate the tastes of food.
Gold rums, also called "amber" rums, are medium-bodied rums that are generally aged. These gain their dark color from aging in wooden barrels (usually the charred, white oak barrels that are the byproduct of Bourbon whiskey). They have more flavor and are stronger-tasting than light rum, and can be considered midway between light rum and the darker varieties.
Light rums, also referred to as "silver" or "white" rums, in general, have very little flavor aside from a general sweetness. Light rums are sometimes filtered after aging to remove any color. The Brazilian cachaça is generally this type, but some varieties are more akin to "gold rums". The majority of light rums come from Puerto Rico. Their milder flavors make them popular for use in mixed drinks, as opposed to drinking them straight.
Overproof rums are much higher than the standard 40% ABV (80 proof), with many as high as 75% (150 proof) to 80% (160 proof) available. Two examples are Bacardi 151 or Pitorro moonshine. They are usually used in mixed drinks.
Premium rums, as with other sipping spirits such as Cognac and Scotch, are in a special market category. These are generally from boutique brands that sell carefully produced and aged rums. They have more character and flavor than their "mixing" counterparts and are generally consumed straight.
Spiced rums obtain their flavors through the addition of spices and, sometimes, caramel. Most are darker in color, and based on gold rums. Some are significantly darker, while many cheaper brands are made from inexpensive white rums and darkened with caramel color. Among the spices added are cinnamon, rosemary, absinthe/aniseed, or pepper.
Production method[edit]
Unlike some other spirits, rum has no defined production methods. Instead, rum production is based on traditional styles that vary between locations and distillers.
Fermentation[edit]
Sugarcane is harvested to make sugarcane juice and molasses.
Artisanal Rum distillery along the N7 road
Most rum is produced from molasses, which is made from sugarcane. A rum's quality is dependent on the quality and variety of the sugar cane that was used to create it. The sugar cane's quality depends on the soil type and climate that it was grown in. Within the Caribbean, much of this molasses is from Brazil.[18] A notable exception is the French-speaking islands, where sugarcane juice is the preferred base ingredient.[2] In Brazil itself, the distilled alcoholic beverage derived from cane juice is distinguished from rum and called cachaça.
Yeast and water are added to the base ingredient to start the fermentation process. While some rum producers allow wild yeasts to perform the fermentation, most use specific strains of yeast to help provide a consistent taste and predictable fermentation time.[38] Dunder, the yeast-rich foam from previous fermentations, is the traditional yeast source in Jamaica.[39] "The yeast employed will determine the final taste and aroma profile," says Jamaican master blender Joy Spence.[2] Distillers who make lighter rums, such as Bacardi, prefer to use faster-working yeasts.[2] Use of slower-working yeasts causes more esters to accumulate during fermentation, allowing for a fuller-tasting rum.[38]
Fermentation products like 2-ethyl-3-methyl butyric acid and esters like ethyl butanoate and ethyl hexanoate give rise to the sweet and fruitiness of rum.[1]
Distillation[edit]
As with all other aspects of rum production, no standard method is used for distillation. While some producers work in batches using pot stills, most rum production is done using column still distillation.[38] Pot still output contains more congeners than the output from column stills, so produces fuller-tasting rums.[2]
Aging and blending[edit]
Many countries require rum to be aged for at least one year. This aging is commonly performed in used bourbon casks,[38] but may also be performed in other types of wooden casks or stainless steel tanks. The aging process determines the color of the rum. When aged in oak casks, it becomes dark, whereas rum aged in stainless steel tanks remains virtually colorless.
Due to the tropical climate, common to most rum-producing areas, rum matures at a much higher rate than is typical for whisky or brandy. An indication of this higher rate is the angels' share, or amount of product lost to evaporation. While products aged in France or Scotland see about 2% loss each year, tropical rum producers may see as much as 10%.[38]
After aging, rum is normally blended to ensure a consistent flavor. Blending is the final step in the rum-making process.[40] As part of this blending process, light rums may be filtered to remove any color gained during aging. For darker rums, caramel may be added to adjust the color of the final product.
In cuisine[edit]
Besides rum punches, cocktails such as the Cuba libre and daiquiri have well-known stories of their invention in the Caribbean. Tiki culture in the U.S. helped expand rum's horizons with inventions such as the mai tai and zombie. Other well-known cocktails containing rum include the piña colada, a drink made popular in America by Rupert Holmes' song "Escape (The Piña Colada Song)",[41] and the mojito. Cold-weather drinks made with rum include the rum toddy and hot buttered rum.[42]
A number of local specialties also use rum, including Bermuda's Dark 'N' Stormy (Gosling's Black Seal rum with ginger beer), the painkiller from the British Virgin Islands, and a New Orleans cocktail known as the Hurricane. Jagertee is a mixture of rum and black tea popular in colder parts of Central Europe and served on special occasions in the British Army, where it is called Gunfire. Ti' Punch, French Creole for "petit punch", is a traditional drink in parts of the French West Indies.
Rum may also be used as a base in the manufacture of liqueurs and syrups, such as falernum.
Rum is used in a number of cooked dishes as a flavoring agent in items such as rum balls or rum cakes. It is commonly used to macerate fruit used in fruitcakes and is also used in marinades for some Caribbean dishes. Rum is also used in the preparation of rumtopf, bananas Foster and some hard sauces. Rum is sometimes mixed into ice cream, often with raisins, and in baking it is occasionally used in Joe Froggers, a type of cookie from New England
See also[edit]
iconLiquor portal
Drink portal
Cachaça
Charanda
Clairin
List of rum producers
Rhum agricole
Rum cake
Rum cocktails
Rum row
Rum-running
Tafia
Notes[edit]
^ a b c Curtis (2006), pp. 34–35
^ a b c d e f g Pacult, F. Paul (July 2002). "Mapping Rum By Region". Wine Enthusiast Magazine.
^ Blue, p. 72–73
^ a b Blue p. 73
^ "The West Indies Rum Distillery Limited". WIRD Ltd. 2009. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
^ Wayne Curtis. "The Five Biggest Rum Myths". Liquor.com.
^ Rajiv. M (12 March 2003). "A Caribbean drink". The Hindu.
^ Curtis (2006), p.14
^ Blue p. 72
^ a b Blue p. 70
^ Cavalcante, Messias Soares. A verdadeira história da cachaça. São Paulo: Sá Editora, 2011. 608p. ISBN 978-85-88193-62-8
^ "Arkeologerna: Skatter i havet". UR Play.
^ Blue p. 74
^ Roueché, Berton. Alcohol in Human Culture. in: Lucia, Salvatore P. (Ed.) Alcohol and Civilization New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963 p. 178
^ Blue p. 76
^ a b Tannahill p. 295
^ Tannahill p. 296
^ a b Frost, Doug (6 January 2005). "Rum makers distill unsavory history into fresh products". San Francisco Chronicle.
^ Rorabaugh, W.J. (1981). The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition. Oxford University Press. pp. 152–154. ISBN 978-0195029901.
^ Buckner, Timothy Ryan (2005). "Constructing Identities on the Frontier of Slavery, Natchez Mississippi, 1760-1860" (PDF). p. 129. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
^ Pack p. 15
^ Blue p. 77
^ Tannahill p. 273
^ Pack p. 123
^ Chapter 6 "Supplementary Income," para.0661 "Extra and other issues," Ministry of Defence regulations
^ Blue p. 78
^ Mikkelson, Barbara (9 May 2006). "Body found in barrel". Urban Legends Reference Pages. Snopes.com. Archived from the original on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 15 January 2009.
^ Clarke p. 26
^ Blainey (1966)
^ Clarke p. 29
^ Blue p. 81–82
^ a b "The drink that nearly knocked me out with one sniff" by Nick Davis, BBC News, 6 September 2015
^ "At a temperance meeting recently held in New Zealand, an intemperate chief addressed the audience, to the surprise of all, in favor of banning rum from the country. Some rude-rum selling foreigners interrupted him with a sneer that he was the greatest drunkard in the region". From The Religious Monitor, or Evangelical Repository Vol. XIV, Hoffman & White, 1837–39, p. 480.
^ Selsky, Andrew (15 September 2003). "Age-old drink losing kick". The Miami Herald.
^ "Tourism Industry in Liberia". Uniboa.org. Retrieved 5 December 2009.
^ Surreptitious drug abuse and the new Liberian reality: an overview
^ Photo-article on Liberian village life
^ a b c d e Vaughan, Mark (1 June 1994). "Tropical Delights". Cigar Aficionado.
^ Cooper p. 54
^ "Manufacturing Rum". Archived from the original on 20 November 2003. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
^ Blue p. 80
^ Cooper p. 54–55
References[edit]
Blainey, Geoffrey (1966). The Tyranny of Distance: How Distance Shaped Australia's History. Sun Books, Australia. ISBN 978-0333338360.
Blue, Anthony Dias (2004). The Complete Book of Spirits : A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-054218-7.
Curtis, Wayne (2006). And a bottle of rum - a history of the New World in ten cocktails. Crown Publishers. p. 285. ISBN 9781400051670.
Clarke, Frank G. (2002). The History of Australia. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31498-5.
Cooper, Rosalind (1982). Spirits & Liqueurs. HPBooks. ISBN 0-89586-194-1.
Foley, Ray (2006). Bartending for Dummies: A reference for the Rest of Us. Wiley Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-470-05056-X.
Pack, James (1982). Nelson's Blood: The Story of Naval Rum. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-944-8.
Rorabaugh, W.J. (1981). The Alcoholic Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195029901.
Tannahill, Reay (1973). Food in History. Stein and Day. ISBN 0-8128-1437-1.
Further reading[edit]
Williams, Ian (2005). Rum: A Social and Sociable History of the Real Spirit of 1776. Nation Books. (extract)
Broom, Dave (2003). Rum. Abbeville Press.
Arkell, Julie (1999). Classic Rum. Prion Books.
Coulombe, Charles A (2004). Rum: The Epic Story of the Drink that Changed Conquered the World. Citadel Press.
Smith, Frederick (2005). Caribbean Rum: A Social and Economic History. University Press of Florida. (Introduction)
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Rum
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rum.
Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Rum.
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Rum
Wikisource-logo.svg "Rum". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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Rum
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the beverage. For other uses, see Rum (disambiguation).
Rum display in a liquor store
Government House rum, manufactured by the Virgin Islands Company distillery in St. Croix, circa 1941
Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane byproducts, such as molasses, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a clear liquid, is then usually aged in oak barrels.
The majority of the world's rum production occurs in the Caribbean and Latin America. Rum is also produced in Scotland, Austria, Spain, Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, the Philippines, India, Reunion Island, Mauritius, South Africa, Taiwan, Thailand, Japan, the United States, and Canada.
Rums are produced in various grades. Light rums are commonly used in cocktails, whereas "golden" and "dark" rums were typically consumed straight or neat, on the rocks, or used for cooking, but are now commonly consumed with mixers. Premium rums are also available, made to be consumed either straight or iced.
Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies as well as in The Maritimes and Newfoundland. This beverage has famous associations with the Royal Navy (where it was mixed with water or beer to make grog) and piracy (where it was consumed as bumbo). Rum has also served as a popular medium of economic exchange, used to help fund enterprises such as slavery (see Triangular trade), organized crime, and military insurgencies (e.g., the American Revolution and Australia's Rum Rebellion).
Contents
1Etymology
2History
2.1Origins
2.2Colonial America
2.3Naval rum
2.4Colonial Australia
3Categorization
3.1Regional variations
3.2Grades
4Production method
4.1Fermentation
4.2Distillation
4.3Aging and blending
5In cuisine
6See also
7Notes
8References
9Further reading
10External links
Etymology[edit]
The Mount Gay Rum visitors centre claims to be the world's oldest remaining rum company, with earliest confirmed deed from 1703.
The origin of the word "rum" is generally unclear. In an 1824 essay about the word's origin, Samuel Morewood, a British etymologist, suggested it might be from the British slang term for "the best", as in "having a rum time." He wrote:
As spirits, extracted from molasses, could not well be ranked under the name whiskey, brandy, or arrack, it would be called rum, to denote its excellence or superior quality.[1]
Given the harsh taste of early rum, this is unlikely. Morewood later suggested another possibility: that it was taken from the last syllable of the Latin word for sugar, saccharum, an explanation commonly heard today.[1]
Other etymologists have mentioned the Romani word rum, meaning "strong" or "potent". These words have been linked to the ramboozle and rumfustian, both popular British drinks in the mid-17th century. However, neither was made with rum, but rather eggs, ale, wine, sugar, and various spices. The most probable origin is as a truncated version of rumbullion or rumbustion.[2] Both words surfaced in English about the same time as rum did (Joan Coromines states 1651 as the first recording of "rumbullion", and 1654 for "rum" -1770 for the first recording in Spanish of ron), and were slang terms for "tumult" or "uproar". This is a far more convincing explanation, and brings the image of fractious men fighting in entanglements at island tippling houses, which are early versions of the bar.[1]
Another claim is the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, a drinking glass.[3] Other options include contractions of the words iterum, Latin for "again, a second time", or arôme, French for aroma.[4]
Regardless of the original source, the name was already in common use by 1654, when the General Court of Connecticut ordered the confiscations of "whatsoever Barbados liquors, commonly called rum, kill devil and the like".[5] A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor "whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc."[4]
In current usage, the name used for a rum is often based on its place of origin.
For rums from Spanish-speaking locales, the word ron is used. A ron añejo ("old rum") indicates a rum that has been significantly aged and is often used for premium products.
Rhum is the term that typically distinguishes rum made from fresh sugar cane juice from rum made from molasses in French-speaking locales like Martinique.[6] A rhum vieux ("old rum") is an aged French rum that meets several other requirements.
Some of the many other names for rum are Nelson's blood, kill-devil, demon water, pirate's drink, navy neaters, and Barbados water.[7] A version of rum from Newfoundland is referred to by the name screech, while some low-grade West Indies rums are called tafia.[8]
History[edit]
Origins[edit]
The precursors to rum date back to antiquity. Development of fermented drinks produced from sugarcane juice is believed to have first occurred either in ancient India or in China,[2] and to have spread from there. An example of such an early drink is brum. Produced by the Malay people, brum dates back thousands of years.[9] Marco Polo also recorded a 14th-century account of a "very good wine of sugar" that was offered to him in the area that became modern-day Iran.[2]
The first distillation of rum took place on the sugarcane plantations of the Caribbean in the 17th century. Plantation slaves first discovered molasses, a byproduct of the sugar refining process, could be fermented into alcohol.[10] Later, distillation of these alcoholic byproducts concentrated the alcohol and removed impurities, producing the first true rums. Tradition suggests rum first originated on the island of Barbados. However, in the decade of the 1620s, rum production was recorded in Brazil.[11] A liquid identified as rum has been found in a tin bottle found on the Swedish warship Vasa, which sank in 1628.[12]
A 1651 document from Barbados stated, "The chief fuddling they make in the island is Rumbullion, alias Kill-Divil, and this is made of sugar canes distilled, a hot, hellish, and terrible liquor."[10]
Colonial America[edit]
Pirates carrying rum to shore to purchase slaves as depicted in The Pirates Own Book by Charles Ellms
After rum's development in the Caribbean, the drink's popularity spread to Colonial North America. To support the demand for the drink, the first rum distillery in the British colonies of North America was set up in 1664 on present-day Staten Island. Boston, Massachusetts had a distillery three years later.[13] The manufacture of rum became early Colonial New England's largest and most prosperous industry.[14] New England became a distilling center due to the technical, metalworking and cooperage skills and abundant lumber; the rum produced there was lighter, more like whiskey. Rhode Island rum even joined gold as an accepted currency in Europe for a period of time.[15] Estimates of rum consumption in the American colonies before the American Revolutionary War had every man, woman, or child drinking an average of 3 imperial gallons (14 l) of rum each year.[16]
To support this demand for the molasses to produce rum, along with the increasing demand for sugar in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries, a labor source to work the sugar plantations in the Caribbean was needed. A triangular trade was established between Africa, the Caribbean, and the colonies to help support this need.[17] The exchange of slaves, molasses, and rum was quite profitable, and the disruption to the trade caused by the Sugar Act in 1764 may have even helped cause the American Revolution.[16] In the slave trade, rum was also used as a medium of exchange. For example, the slave Venture Smith, whose history was later published, had been purchased in Africa for four gallons of rum plus a piece of calico.
The popularity of rum continued after the American Revolution, with George Washington insisting on a barrel of Barbados rum at his 1789 inauguration.[18]
Rum started to play an important role in the political system; candidates attempted to influence the outcome of an election through their generosity with rum. The people would attend the hustings to see which candidate appeared more generous. The candidate was expected to drink with the people to show he was independent and truly a republican. In the 1833 Mississippi state senate election, one candidate, Judge Edward Turner, poured his drinks and socialized with the people. He was more personal and it appeared as if he was going to win. The other candidate, a Methodist parson named Dick Stewart, announced he would not be pouring their drinks and they could have as much as they wanted; Dick Stewart won.[19][20]
Eventually the restrictions on sugar imports from the British islands of the Caribbean, combined with the development of American whiskey, led to a decline in the drink's popularity in North America.
Naval rum[edit]
See also: Rum ration
Wrens during World War II serving rum to a sailor from a tub inscribed "The King God Bless Him" - Robert Sargent Austin
Rum grog
Rum's association with piracy began with British privateers trading on the valuable commodity. As some of the privateers became pirates and buccaneers, their fondness for rum remained, the association between the two only being strengthened by literary works such as Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island.[21]
The association of rum with the Royal Navy began in 1655, when the British fleet captured the island of Jamaica. With the availability of domestically produced rum, the British changed the daily ration of liquor given to seamen from French brandy to rum.[22]
Navy Rum was originally a blended rum mixed from rums locally produced in the West Indies. It varies in strength from 95.5 Proof (47.75% ABV) to 114 Proof (57% ABV).
While the ration was originally given neat, or mixed with lime juice, the practice of watering down the rum began around 1740. To help minimize the effect of the alcohol on his sailors, Admiral Edward Vernon had the rum ration watered producing a mixture that became known as grog. While many believe the term was coined in honor of the grogram cloak Admiral Vernon wore in rough weather,[23] the term predates his famous order. It probably originates in the West Indies, perhaps of African etymology. The Royal Navy continued to give its sailors a daily rum ration, known as a "tot," until the practice was abolished after 31 July 1970.[24]
Today, a tot (totty) of rum is still issued on special occasions, using an order to "splice the mainbrace", which may only be given by the Queen, a member of the royal family or, on certain occasions, the admiralty board in the UK, with similar restrictions in other Commonwealth navies.[25] Recently, such occasions have included royal marriages or birthdays, or special anniversaries. In the days of daily rum rations, the order to "splice the mainbrace" meant double rations would be issued.
A legend involving naval rum and Horatio Nelson says that following his victory and death at the Battle of Trafalgar, Nelson's body was preserved in a cask of rum to allow transportation back to England. Upon arrival, however, the cask was opened and found to be empty. The [pickled] body was removed and, upon inspection, it was discovered that the sailors had drilled a hole in the bottom of the cask and drunk all the rum, hence the term "Nelson's blood" being used to describe rum. It also serves as the basis for the term tapping the admiral being used to describe surreptitiously sucking liquor from a cask through a straw. The details of the story are disputed, as many historians claim the cask contained French brandy, whilst others claim instead the term originated from a toast to Admiral Nelson.[26] Variations of the story, involving different notable corpses, have been in circulation for many years. The official record states merely that the body was placed in "refined spirits" and does not go into further detail.[27]
The Royal New Zealand Navy was the last naval force to give sailors a free daily tot of rum. The Royal Canadian Navy still gives a rum ration on special occasions; the rum is usually provided out of the commanding officer's fund, and is 150 proof (75%). It is consumed on the order "up spirits".[citation needed] The order to "splice the mainbrace" (i.e. take rum) can be given by the Queen as commander-in-chief, as occurred on 29 June 2010, when she gave the order to the Royal Canadian Navy as part of the celebration of their 100th anniversary.
Rum was also occasionally consumed mixed with gunpowder, either to test the proof of an alcohol ration (if the alcohol was diluted, the gunpowder would not ignite after being soaked with alcohol) or to seal a vow or show loyalty to a rebellion.[citation needed]
Colonial Australia[edit]
Beenleigh Rum Distillery, on the banks of the Albert River near Brisbane, Queensland, circa 1912
See also: Rum Rebellion
Rum became an important trade good in the early period of the colony of New South Wales. The value of rum was based upon the lack of coinage among the population of the colony, and due to the drink's ability to allow its consumer to temporarily forget about the lack of creature comforts available in the new colony. The value of rum was such that convict settlers could be induced to work the lands owned by officers of the New South Wales Corps. Due to rum's popularity among the settlers, the colony gained a reputation for drunkenness, though their alcohol consumption was less than levels commonly consumed in England at the time.[28]
Australia was so far away from Britain that the convict colony, established in 1788, faced severe food shortages, compounded by poor conditions for growing crops and the shortage of livestock. Eventually it was realized that it might be cheaper for India, instead of Britain, to supply the settlement of Sydney. By 1817, two out of every three ships which left Sydney went to Java or India, and cargoes from Bengal fed and equipped the colony. Casks of Bengal Rum (which was reputed to be stronger than Jamaican Rum, and not so sweet) were brought back in the depths of nearly every ship from India — although taken to shore clandestinely—to the dismay of the governors. Britons living in India grew wealthy through sending ships to Sydney "laden half with rice and half with bad spirits."[29]
Rum was intimately involved in the only military takeover of an Australian government, known as the Rum Rebellion. When William Bligh became governor of the colony, he attempted to remedy the perceived problem with drunkenness by outlawing the use of rum as a medium of exchange, but in response to Bligh's attempt to regulate the use of rum, in 1808, the New South Wales Corps marched with fixed bayonets to Government House and placed Bligh under arrest. The mutineers continued to control the colony until the arrival of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810.[30]
Categorization[edit]
Dividing rum into meaningful groupings is complicated because no single standard exists for what constitutes rum. Instead, rum is defined by the varying rules and laws of the nations producing the spirit. The differences in definitions include issues such as spirit proof, minimum aging, and even naming standards.
Examples of the differences in proof is Colombia, requiring their rums possess a minimum alcohol content of 50% alcohol by volume (ABV)[citation needed], while Chile and Venezuela require only a minimum of 40% ABV. Mexico requires rum be aged a minimum of eight months; the Dominican Republic, Panama and Venezuela require two years. Naming standards also vary. Argentina defines rums as white, gold, light, and extra light. Grenada and Barbados uses the terms white, overproof, and matured, while the United States defines rum, rum liqueur, and flavored rum.[31] In Australia, rum is divided into dark or red rum (underproof known as UP, overproof known as OP, and triple distilled) and white rum.
Despite these differences in standards and nomenclature, the following divisions are provided to help show the wide variety of rums produced.
Regional variations[edit]
The Bacardi building in Havana, Cuba
Within the Caribbean, each island or production area has a unique style. For the most part, these styles can be grouped by the language traditionally spoken. Due to the overwhelming influence of Puerto Rican rum, most rum consumed in the United States is produced in the "Spanish-speaking" style.
English-speaking islands and countries are known for darker rums with a fuller taste that retains a greater amount of the underlying molasses flavor. Rums from Antigua, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Barbados, Saint Lucia, Belize, Bermuda, Saint Kitts, the Demerara region of Guyana, and Jamaica are typical of this style.
In Jamaica particularly, a version called "Rude Rum" or "John Crow Batty" is served in some places and it is reportedly much stronger in alcohol content being listed as one of the 10 strongest drinks in the world, while it might also contain other intoxicants.[32] Ska star Prince Buster, who had a hit called "Rum and Coca-Cola", claimed in an interview that "when water was added [to rude rum] as a chaser the brew was so potent, smoke would rise out of the glass".[32] The term, denoting home made, strong rum, appears in New Zealand since at least the early 19th century.[33]
French-speaking islands are best known for their agricultural rums (rhum agricole). These rums, being produced exclusively from sugar cane juice, retain a greater amount of the original flavor of the sugar cane and are generally more expensive than molasses-based rums. Rums from Haiti, Guadeloupe and Martinique are typical of this style.
Spanish-speaking islands and countries traditionally produce añejo rums with a fairly smooth taste. Rums from Cuba, Guatemala, Panama, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, Colombia and Venezuela are typical of this style. Rum from the U.S. Virgin Islands is also of this style. The Canary Islands produces honey rum known as ron miel de Canarias and carries a geographical designation.
Cachaça is a spirit similar to rum that is produced in Brazil. Some countries, including the United States, classify cachaça as a type of rum. Seco, from Panama, is also a spirit similar to rum, but also similar to vodka since it is triple distilled.
Mexico produces a number of brands of light and dark rum, as well as other less-expensive flavored and unflavored sugarcane-based liquors, such as aguardiente de caña and charanda.
A spirit known as aguardiente, distilled from molasses and often infused with anise, with additional sugarcane juice added after distillation, is produced in Central America and northern South America.[34]
In West Africa, and particularly in Liberia, 'cane juice' (also known as Liberian rum[35] or simply CJ within Liberia itself[36]) is a cheap, strong spirit distilled from sugarcane, which can be as strong as 43% ABV [86 proof].[37] A refined cane spirit has also been produced in South Africa since the 1950s, simply known as cane.
Within Europe, in the Czech Republic a similar spirit made from sugar beet is known as Tuzemak.
In Germany, a cheap substitute for genuine dark rum is called Rum-Verschnitt (literally: blended or "cut" rum). This distilled beverage is made of genuine dark rum (often from Jamaica), rectified spirit, and water. Very often, caramel coloring is used, too. The relative amount of genuine rum it contains can be quite low, since the legal minimum is at only 5%. In Austria, a similar rum called Inländerrum or domestic rum is available. However, Austrian Inländerrum is always a spiced rum, such as the brand Stroh; German Rum-Verschnitt, in contrast, is never spiced or flavored.
Grades[edit]
The grades and variations used to describe rum depend on the location where a rum was produced. Despite these variations, the following terms are frequently used to describe various types of rum:
Dark rums, also known by their particular color, such as brown, black, or red rums, are classes a grade darker than gold rums. They are usually made from caramelized sugar or molasses. They are generally aged longer, in heavily charred barrels, giving them much stronger flavors than either light or gold rums, and hints of spices can be detected, along with a strong molasses or caramel overtone. They commonly provide substance in rum drinks, as well as color. In addition, dark rum is the type most commonly used in cooking. Most dark rums come from areas such as Jamaica, Haiti, and Martinique.
Flavored rums are infused with flavors of fruits, such as banana, mango, orange, pineapple, coconut, starfruit or lime. These are generally less than 40% ABV (80 proof). They mostly serve to flavor similarly-themed tropical drinks but are also often drunk neat or with ice. This infusion of flavors occurs after fermentation and distillation. Various chemicals are added to the alcohol to simulate the tastes of food.
Gold rums, also called "amber" rums, are medium-bodied rums that are generally aged. These gain their dark color from aging in wooden barrels (usually the charred, white oak barrels that are the byproduct of Bourbon whiskey). They have more flavor and are stronger-tasting than light rum, and can be considered midway between light rum and the darker varieties.
Light rums, also referred to as "silver" or "white" rums, in general, have very little flavor aside from a general sweetness. Light rums are sometimes filtered after aging to remove any color. The Brazilian cachaça is generally this type, but some varieties are more akin to "gold rums". The majority of light rums come from Puerto Rico. Their milder flavors make them popular for use in mixed drinks, as opposed to drinking them straight.
Overproof rums are much higher than the standard 40% ABV (80 proof), with many as high as 75% (150 proof) to 80% (160 proof) available. Two examples are Bacardi 151 or Pitorro moonshine. They are usually used in mixed drinks.
Premium rums, as with other sipping spirits such as Cognac and Scotch, are in a special market category. These are generally from boutique brands that sell carefully produced and aged rums. They have more character and flavor than their "mixing" counterparts and are generally consumed straight.
Spiced rums obtain their flavors through the addition of spices and, sometimes, caramel. Most are darker in color, and based on gold rums. Some are significantly darker, while many cheaper brands are made from inexpensive white rums and darkened with caramel color. Among the spices added are cinnamon, rosemary, absinthe/aniseed, or pepper.
Production method[edit]
Unlike some other spirits, rum has no defined production methods. Instead, rum production is based on traditional styles that vary between locations and distillers.
Fermentation[edit]
Sugarcane is harvested to make sugarcane juice and molasses.
Artisanal Rum distillery along the N7 road
Most rum is produced from molasses, which is made from sugarcane. A rum's quality is dependent on the quality and variety of the sugar cane that was used to create it. The sugar cane's quality depends on the soil type and climate that it was grown in. Within the Caribbean, much of this molasses is from Brazil.[18] A notable exception is the French-speaking islands, where sugarcane juice is the preferred base ingredient.[2] In Brazil itself, the distilled alcoholic beverage derived from cane juice is distinguished from rum and called cachaça.
Yeast and water are added to the base ingredient to start the fermentation process. While some rum producers allow wild yeasts to perform the fermentation, most use specific strains of yeast to help provide a consistent taste and predictable fermentation time.[38] Dunder, the yeast-rich foam from previous fermentations, is the traditional yeast source in Jamaica.[39] "The yeast employed will determine the final taste and aroma profile," says Jamaican master blender Joy Spence.[2] Distillers who make lighter rums, such as Bacardi, prefer to use faster-working yeasts.[2] Use of slower-working yeasts causes more esters to accumulate during fermentation, allowing for a fuller-tasting rum.[38]
Fermentation products like 2-ethyl-3-methyl butyric acid and esters like ethyl butanoate and ethyl hexanoate give rise to the sweet and fruitiness of rum.[1]
Distillation[edit]
As with all other aspects of rum production, no standard method is used for distillation. While some producers work in batches using pot stills, most rum production is done using column still distillation.[38] Pot still output contains more congeners than the output from column stills, so produces fuller-tasting rums.[2]
Aging and blending[edit]
Many countries require rum to be aged for at least one year. This aging is commonly performed in used bourbon casks,[38] but may also be performed in other types of wooden casks or stainless steel tanks. The aging process determines the color of the rum. When aged in oak casks, it becomes dark, whereas rum aged in stainless steel tanks remains virtually colorless.
Due to the tropical climate, common to most rum-producing areas, rum matures at a much higher rate than is typical for whisky or brandy. An indication of this higher rate is the angels' share, or amount of product lost to evaporation. While products aged in France or Scotland see about 2% loss each year, tropical rum producers may see as much as 10%.[38]
After aging, rum is normally blended to ensure a consistent flavor. Blending is the final step in the rum-making process.[40] As part of this blending process, light rums may be filtered to remove any color gained during aging. For darker rums, caramel may be added to adjust the color of the final product.
In cuisine[edit]
Besides rum punches, cocktails such as the Cuba libre and daiquiri have well-known stories of their invention in the Caribbean. Tiki culture in the U.S. helped expand rum's horizons with inventions such as the mai tai and zombie. Other well-known cocktails containing rum include the piña colada, a drink made popular in America by Rupert Holmes' song "Escape (The Piña Colada Song)",[41] and the mojito. Cold-weather drinks made with rum include the rum toddy and hot buttered rum.[42]
A number of local specialties also use rum, including Bermuda's Dark 'N' Stormy (Gosling's Black Seal rum with ginger beer), the painkiller from the British Virgin Islands, and a New Orleans cocktail known as the Hurricane. Jagertee is a mixture of rum and black tea popular in colder parts of Central Europe and served on special occasions in the British Army, where it is called Gunfire. Ti' Punch, French Creole for "petit punch", is a traditional drink in parts of the French West Indies.
Rum may also be used as a base in the manufacture of liqueurs and syrups, such as falernum.
Rum is used in a number of cooked dishes as a flavoring agent in items such as rum balls or rum cakes. It is commonly used to macerate fruit used in fruitcakes and is also used in marinades for some Caribbean dishes. Rum is also used in the preparation of rumtopf, bananas Foster and some hard sauces. Rum is sometimes mixed into ice cream, often with raisins, and in baking it is occasionally used in Joe Froggers, a type of cookie from New England
See also[edit]
iconLiquor portal
Drink portal
Cachaça
Charanda
Clairin
List of rum producers
Rhum agricole
Rum cake
Rum cocktails
Rum row
Rum-running
Tafia
Notes[edit]
^ a b c Curtis (2006), pp. 34–35
^ a b c d e f g Pacult, F. Paul (July 2002). "Mapping Rum By Region". Wine Enthusiast Magazine.
^ Blue, p. 72–73
^ a b Blue p. 73
^ "The West Indies Rum Distillery Limited". WIRD Ltd. 2009. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
^ Wayne Curtis. "The Five Biggest Rum Myths". Liquor.com.
^ Rajiv. M (12 March 2003). "A Caribbean drink". The Hindu.
^ Curtis (2006), p.14
^ Blue p. 72
^ a b Blue p. 70
^ Cavalcante, Messias Soares. A verdadeira história da cachaça. São Paulo: Sá Editora, 2011. 608p. ISBN 978-85-88193-62-8
^ "Arkeologerna: Skatter i havet". UR Play.
^ Blue p. 74
^ Roueché, Berton. Alcohol in Human Culture. in: Lucia, Salvatore P. (Ed.) Alcohol and Civilization New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963 p. 178
^ Blue p. 76
^ a b Tannahill p. 295
^ Tannahill p. 296
^ a b Frost, Doug (6 January 2005). "Rum makers distill unsavory history into fresh products". San Francisco Chronicle.
^ Rorabaugh, W.J. (1981). The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition. Oxford University Press. pp. 152–154. ISBN 978-0195029901.
^ Buckner, Timothy Ryan (2005). "Constructing Identities on the Frontier of Slavery, Natchez Mississippi, 1760-1860" (PDF). p. 129. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
^ Pack p. 15
^ Blue p. 77
^ Tannahill p. 273
^ Pack p. 123
^ Chapter 6 "Supplementary Income," para.0661 "Extra and other issues," Ministry of Defence regulations
^ Blue p. 78
^ Mikkelson, Barbara (9 May 2006). "Body found in barrel". Urban Legends Reference Pages. Snopes.com. Archived from the original on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 15 January 2009.
^ Clarke p. 26
^ Blainey (1966)
^ Clarke p. 29
^ Blue p. 81–82
^ a b "The drink that nearly knocked me out with one sniff" by Nick Davis, BBC News, 6 September 2015
^ "At a temperance meeting recently held in New Zealand, an intemperate chief addressed the audience, to the surprise of all, in favor of banning rum from the country. Some rude-rum selling foreigners interrupted him with a sneer that he was the greatest drunkard in the region". From The Religious Monitor, or Evangelical Repository Vol. XIV, Hoffman & White, 1837–39, p. 480.
^ Selsky, Andrew (15 September 2003). "Age-old drink losing kick". The Miami Herald.
^ "Tourism Industry in Liberia". Uniboa.org. Retrieved 5 December 2009.
^ Surreptitious drug abuse and the new Liberian reality: an overview
^ Photo-article on Liberian village life
^ a b c d e Vaughan, Mark (1 June 1994). "Tropical Delights". Cigar Aficionado.
^ Cooper p. 54
^ "Manufacturing Rum". Archived from the original on 20 November 2003. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
^ Blue p. 80
^ Cooper p. 54–55
References[edit]
Blainey, Geoffrey (1966). The Tyranny of Distance: How Distance Shaped Australia's History. Sun Books, Australia. ISBN 978-0333338360.
Blue, Anthony Dias (2004). The Complete Book of Spirits : A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-054218-7.
Curtis, Wayne (2006). And a bottle of rum - a history of the New World in ten cocktails. Crown Publishers. p. 285. ISBN 9781400051670.
Clarke, Frank G. (2002). The History of Australia. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31498-5.
Cooper, Rosalind (1982). Spirits & Liqueurs. HPBooks. ISBN 0-89586-194-1.
Foley, Ray (2006). Bartending for Dummies: A reference for the Rest of Us. Wiley Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-470-05056-X.
Pack, James (1982). Nelson's Blood: The Story of Naval Rum. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-944-8.
Rorabaugh, W.J. (1981). The Alcoholic Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195029901.
Tannahill, Reay (1973). Food in History. Stein and Day. ISBN 0-8128-1437-1.
Further reading[edit]
Williams, Ian (2005). Rum: A Social and Sociable History of the Real Spirit of 1776. Nation Books. (extract)
Broom, Dave (2003). Rum. Abbeville Press.
Arkell, Julie (1999). Classic Rum. Prion Books.
Coulombe, Charles A (2004). Rum: The Epic Story of the Drink that Changed Conquered the World. Citadel Press.
Smith, Frederick (2005). Caribbean Rum: A Social and Economic History. University Press of Florida. (Introduction)
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Rum
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rum.
Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Rum.
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Rum
Wikisource-logo.svg "Rum". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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Cosmic latte
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Cosmic Latte, the average color of the universe.
Cosmic Latte
About these coordinates Color coordinates
Hex triplet#FFF8E7
sRGBB (r, g, b)(255, 248, 231)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)(0, 2.7, 9.6, 0)
HSV (h, s, v)(40°, 94%, 90%)
SourceInternet
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Cosmic Latte is a name assigned to the average color of the universe, given by a team of astronomers from Johns Hopkins University. In 2001, Karl Glazebrook and Ivan Baldry determined that the color of the universe was a greenish white, but they soon corrected their analysis in a 2002 paper,[1] in which they reported that their survey of the color of all light in the universe added up to a slightly beigeish white. The survey included more than 200,000 galaxies, and measured the spectral range of the light from a large volume of the universe. The hexadecimal RGB value for Cosmic Latte is #FFF8E7.
Contents [hide]
1Discovery of the color
1.1Naming of the color
2References
3External links
Discovery of the color[edit]
The finding of the "color of the universe" was not the focus of the study, which was examining spectral analysis of different galaxies to study star formation. Like Fraunhofer lines, the dark lines displayed in the study's spectral ranges display older and younger stars and allow Glazebrook and Baldry to determine the age of different galaxies and star systems. What the study revealed is that the overwhelming majority of stars formed about 5 billion years ago. Because these stars would have been "brighter" in the past, the color of the universe changes over time shifting from blue to red as more blue stars change to yellow and eventually red giants.
Glazebrook's and Baldry's work was funded by the David and Lucile Packard Foundation.
As light from distant galaxies reaches the Earth, the average "color of the universe" (as seen from Earth) marginally increases towards pure white, due to the light coming from the stars when they were much younger and bluer.[citation needed]
Naming of the color[edit]
The original and incorrect color thought to describe the universe was "cosmic turquoise" due to an error in the way that the software calculated the shade.[2](#9CFFCE)
The color was displayed in a Washington Post article.[citation needed] Glazebrook jokingly said that he was looking for suggestions for a name for the new color. Several people who read the article sent in suggestions. These were the results of a vote of the scientists involved based on the new color.
Color NameCreditNumber of votes from JHU astronomers
Cosmic LattePeter Drum6
Cappuccino CosmicoPeter Drum17
Big Bang Buff/Blush/BeigeMany entrants13
Cosmic CreamSeveral entrants8
Astronomer GreenUnknown8
Astronomer AlmondLisa Rose7
SkyvoryMichael Howard7
UniveigeSeveral entrants6
Cosmic KhakiUnknown5
Primordial Clam ChowderUnknown4
[3]
Though Drum's suggestion "Cappuccino Cosmico" received the most votes, Glazebrook and Baldry preferred Drum's other suggestion (Cosmic Latte). Drum came up with the name while sitting at a Starbucks coffeehouse drinking a latte and reading the Post. Drum noticed that the color of the universe as displayed in the Washington Post was the same color as his latte.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Baldry, Ivan K.; Glazebrook, Karl; Baugh, Carlton M.; Bland?hawthorn, Joss; Bridges, Terry; Cannon, Russell; Cole, Shaun; Colless, Matthew; Collins, Chris (2002). "The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey: Constraints on Cosmic Star Formation History from the Cosmic Spectrum". The Astrophysical Journal. The American Astronomical Society (published 20 April 2002). 569 (2): 582–594. doi:10.1086/339477.
Jump up ^ Associated Press. "Universe: Beige, not Turquoise". Wired. Wired. Archived from the original on 24 July 2008. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
Jump up ^ http://www.pha.jhu.edu/~kgb/cosspec/topten.htm
External links[edit]
The Cosmic Spectrum Official project website
[hide] v t e
Shades of white
Anti-flash whiteAntique whiteBeigeBlondCornsilkCosmic latteCreamEggshellFloral whiteGhost white
HoneydewIsabellineIvoryLavender blushLemon chiffonLinenMagnoliaMint creamNavajo whiteOld lace
Papaya whipPeachPearlSeashellSnowSplashed whiteVanillaWhiteWhite smoke
A typical sample is shown for each name; a range of color-variations is commonly associated with each color-name.
Categories: Shades of whitePhysical universe
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Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Cosmic Latte, the average color of the universe.
Cosmic Latte
About these coordinates Color coordinates
Hex triplet#FFF8E7
sRGBB (r, g, b)(255, 248, 231)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)(0, 2.7, 9.6, 0)
HSV (h, s, v)(40°, 94%, 90%)
SourceInternet
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Cosmic Latte is a name assigned to the average color of the universe, given by a team of astronomers from Johns Hopkins University. In 2001, Karl Glazebrook and Ivan Baldry determined that the color of the universe was a greenish white, but they soon corrected their analysis in a 2002 paper,[1] in which they reported that their survey of the color of all light in the universe added up to a slightly beigeish white. The survey included more than 200,000 galaxies, and measured the spectral range of the light from a large volume of the universe. The hexadecimal RGB value for Cosmic Latte is #FFF8E7.
Contents [hide]
1Discovery of the color
1.1Naming of the color
2References
3External links
Discovery of the color[edit]
The finding of the "color of the universe" was not the focus of the study, which was examining spectral analysis of different galaxies to study star formation. Like Fraunhofer lines, the dark lines displayed in the study's spectral ranges display older and younger stars and allow Glazebrook and Baldry to determine the age of different galaxies and star systems. What the study revealed is that the overwhelming majority of stars formed about 5 billion years ago. Because these stars would have been "brighter" in the past, the color of the universe changes over time shifting from blue to red as more blue stars change to yellow and eventually red giants.
Glazebrook's and Baldry's work was funded by the David and Lucile Packard Foundation.
As light from distant galaxies reaches the Earth, the average "color of the universe" (as seen from Earth) marginally increases towards pure white, due to the light coming from the stars when they were much younger and bluer.[citation needed]
Naming of the color[edit]
The original and incorrect color thought to describe the universe was "cosmic turquoise" due to an error in the way that the software calculated the shade.[2](#9CFFCE)
The color was displayed in a Washington Post article.[citation needed] Glazebrook jokingly said that he was looking for suggestions for a name for the new color. Several people who read the article sent in suggestions. These were the results of a vote of the scientists involved based on the new color.
Color NameCreditNumber of votes from JHU astronomers
Cosmic LattePeter Drum6
Cappuccino CosmicoPeter Drum17
Big Bang Buff/Blush/BeigeMany entrants13
Cosmic CreamSeveral entrants8
Astronomer GreenUnknown8
Astronomer AlmondLisa Rose7
SkyvoryMichael Howard7
UniveigeSeveral entrants6
Cosmic KhakiUnknown5
Primordial Clam ChowderUnknown4
[3]
Though Drum's suggestion "Cappuccino Cosmico" received the most votes, Glazebrook and Baldry preferred Drum's other suggestion (Cosmic Latte). Drum came up with the name while sitting at a Starbucks coffeehouse drinking a latte and reading the Post. Drum noticed that the color of the universe as displayed in the Washington Post was the same color as his latte.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Baldry, Ivan K.; Glazebrook, Karl; Baugh, Carlton M.; Bland?hawthorn, Joss; Bridges, Terry; Cannon, Russell; Cole, Shaun; Colless, Matthew; Collins, Chris (2002). "The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey: Constraints on Cosmic Star Formation History from the Cosmic Spectrum". The Astrophysical Journal. The American Astronomical Society (published 20 April 2002). 569 (2): 582–594. doi:10.1086/339477.
Jump up ^ Associated Press. "Universe: Beige, not Turquoise". Wired. Wired. Archived from the original on 24 July 2008. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
Jump up ^ http://www.pha.jhu.edu/~kgb/cosspec/topten.htm
External links[edit]
The Cosmic Spectrum Official project website
[hide] v t e
Shades of white
Anti-flash whiteAntique whiteBeigeBlondCornsilkCosmic latteCreamEggshellFloral whiteGhost white
HoneydewIsabellineIvoryLavender blushLemon chiffonLinenMagnoliaMint creamNavajo whiteOld lace
Papaya whipPeachPearlSeashellSnowSplashed whiteVanillaWhiteWhite smoke
A typical sample is shown for each name; a range of color-variations is commonly associated with each color-name.
Categories: Shades of whitePhysical universe
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch
Search Wikipedia
Go
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Contents
Featured content
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Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
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Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
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Permanent link
Page information
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Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Dansk
Deutsch
Español
???
Italiano
Lumbaart
??????
Norsk bokmål
Português
???????
??
Edit links
This page was last modified on 12 November 2016, at 17:38.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki
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[border=#000,1,solid][bgcolor=#80a0ff]
Rum
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the beverage. For other uses, see Rum (disambiguation).
Rum display in a liquor store
Government House rum, manufactured by the Virgin Islands Company distillery in St. Croix, circa 1941
Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane byproducts, such as molasses, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a clear liquid, is then usually aged in oak barrels.
The majority of the world's rum production occurs in the Caribbean and Latin America. Rum is also produced in Scotland, Austria, Spain, Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, the Philippines, India, Reunion Island, Mauritius, South Africa, Taiwan, Thailand, Japan, the United States, and Canada.
Rums are produced in various grades. Light rums are commonly used in cocktails, whereas "golden" and "dark" rums were typically consumed straight or neat, on the rocks, or used for cooking, but are now commonly consumed with mixers. Premium rums are also available, made to be consumed either straight or iced.
Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies as well as in The Maritimes and Newfoundland. This beverage has famous associations with the Royal Navy (where it was mixed with water or beer to make grog) and piracy (where it was consumed as bumbo). Rum has also served as a popular medium of economic exchange, used to help fund enterprises such as slavery (see Triangular trade), organized crime, and military insurgencies (e.g., the American Revolution and Australia's Rum Rebellion).
Contents [hide]
1Etymology
2History
2.1Origins
2.2Colonial America
2.3Naval rum
2.4Colonial Australia
3Categorization
3.1Regional variations
3.2Grades
4Production method
4.1Fermentation
4.2Distillation
4.3Aging and blending
5In cuisine
6See also
7Notes
8References
9Further reading
10External links
Etymology[edit]
The Mount Gay Rum visitors centre claims to be the world's oldest remaining rum company, with earliest confirmed deed from 1703.
The origin of the word "rum" is generally unclear. In an 1824 essay about the word's origin, Samuel Morewood, a British etymologist, suggested it might be from the British slang term for "the best", as in "having a rum time." He wrote:
As spirits, extracted from molasses, could not well be ranked under the name whiskey, brandy, or arrack, it would be called rum, to denote its excellence or superior quality.[1]
Given the harsh taste of early rum, this is unlikely. Morewood later suggested another possibility: that it was taken from the last syllable of the Latin word for sugar, saccharum, an explanation commonly heard today.[1]
Other etymologists have mentioned the Romani word rum, meaning "strong" or "potent". These words have been linked to the ramboozle and rumfustian, both popular British drinks in the mid-17th century. However, neither was made with rum, but rather eggs, ale, wine, sugar, and various spices. The most probable origin is as a truncated version of rumbullion or rumbustion.[2] Both words surfaced in English about the same time as rum did (Joan Coromines states 1651 as the first recording of "rumbullion", and 1654 for "rum" -1770 for the first recording in Spanish of ron), and were slang terms for "tumult" or "uproar". This is a far more convincing explanation, and brings the image of fractious men fighting in entanglements at island tippling houses, which are early versions of the bar.[1]
Another claim is the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, a drinking glass.[3] Other options include contractions of the words iterum, Latin for "again, a second time", or arôme, French for aroma.[4]
Regardless of the original source, the name was already in common use by 1654, when the General Court of Connecticut ordered the confiscations of "whatsoever Barbados liquors, commonly called rum, kill devil and the like".[5] A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor "whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc."[4]
In current usage, the name used for a rum is often based on its place of origin.
For rums from Spanish-speaking locales, the word ron is used. A ron añejo ("old rum") indicates a rum that has been significantly aged and is often used for premium products.
Rhum is the term that typically distinguishes rum made from fresh sugar cane juice from rum made from molasses in French-speaking locales like Martinique.[6] A rhum vieux ("old rum") is an aged French rum that meets several other requirements.
Some of the many other names for rum are Nelson's blood, kill-devil, demon water, pirate's drink, navy neaters, and Barbados water.[7] A version of rum from Newfoundland is referred to by the name screech, while some low-grade West Indies rums are called tafia.[8]
History[edit]
Origins[edit]
The precursors to rum date back to antiquity. Development of fermented drinks produced from sugarcane juice is believed to have first occurred either in ancient India or in China,[2] and to have spread from there. An example of such an early drink is brum. Produced by the Malay people, brum dates back thousands of years.[9] Marco Polo also recorded a 14th-century account of a "very good wine of sugar" that was offered to him in the area that became modern-day Iran.[2]
The first distillation of rum took place on the sugarcane plantations of the Caribbean in the 17th century. Plantation slaves first discovered molasses, a byproduct of the sugar refining process, could be fermented into alcohol.[10] Later, distillation of these alcoholic byproducts concentrated the alcohol and removed impurities, producing the first true rums. Tradition suggests rum first originated on the island of Barbados. However, in the decade of the 1620s, rum production was recorded in Brazil.[11] A liquid identified as rum has been found in a tin bottle found on the Swedish warship Vasa, which sank in 1628.[12]
A 1651 document from Barbados stated, "The chief fuddling they make in the island is Rumbullion, alias Kill-Divil, and this is made of sugar canes distilled, a hot, hellish, and terrible liquor."[10]
Colonial America[edit]
Pirates carrying rum to shore to purchase slaves as depicted in The Pirates Own Book by Charles Ellms
After rum's development in the Caribbean, the drink's popularity spread to Colonial North America. To support the demand for the drink, the first rum distillery in the British colonies of North America was set up in 1664 on present-day Staten Island. Boston, Massachusetts had a distillery three years later.[13] The manufacture of rum became early Colonial New England's largest and most prosperous industry.[14] New England became a distilling center due to the technical, metalworking and cooperage skills and abundant lumber; the rum produced there was lighter, more like whiskey. Rhode Island rum even joined gold as an accepted currency in Europe for a period of time.[15] Estimates of rum consumption in the American colonies before the American Revolutionary War had every man, woman, or child drinking an average of 3 imperial gallons (14 l) of rum each year.[16]
To support this demand for the molasses to produce rum, along with the increasing demand for sugar in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries, a labor source to work the sugar plantations in the Caribbean was needed. A triangular trade was established between Africa, the Caribbean, and the colonies to help support this need.[17] The exchange of slaves, molasses, and rum was quite profitable, and the disruption to the trade caused by the Sugar Act in 1764 may have even helped cause the American Revolution.[16] In the slave trade, rum was also used as a medium of exchange. For example, the slave Venture Smith, whose history was later published, had been purchased in Africa for four gallons of rum plus a piece of calico.
The popularity of rum continued after the American Revolution, with George Washington insisting on a barrel of Barbados rum at his 1789 inauguration.[18]
Rum started to play an important role in the political system; candidates attempted to influence the outcome of an election through their generosity with rum. The people would attend the hustings to see which candidate appeared more generous. The candidate was expected to drink with the people to show he was independent and truly a republican. In the 1833 Mississippi state senate election, one candidate, Judge Edward Turner, poured his drinks and socialized with the people. He was more personal and it appeared as if he was going to win. The other candidate, a Methodist parson named Dick Stewart, announced he would not be pouring their drinks and they could have as much as they wanted; Dick Stewart won.[19][20]
Eventually the restrictions on sugar imports from the British islands of the Caribbean, combined with the development of American whiskey, led to a decline in the drink's popularity in North America.
Naval rum[edit]
See also: Rum ration
Wrens during World War II serving rum to a sailor from a tub inscribed "The King God Bless Him" - Robert Sargent Austin
Rum grog
Rum's association with piracy began with British privateers trading on the valuable commodity. As some of the privateers became pirates and buccaneers, their fondness for rum remained, the association between the two only being strengthened by literary works such as Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island.[21]
The association of rum with the Royal Navy began in 1655, when the British fleet captured the island of Jamaica. With the availability of domestically produced rum, the British changed the daily ration of liquor given to seamen from French brandy to rum.[22]
Navy Rum was originally a blended rum mixed from rums locally produced in the West Indies. It varies in strength from 95.5 Proof (47.75% ABV) to 114 Proof (57% ABV).
While the ration was originally given neat, or mixed with lime juice, the practice of watering down the rum began around 1740. To help minimize the effect of the alcohol on his sailors, Admiral Edward Vernon had the rum ration watered producing a mixture that became known as grog. While many believe the term was coined in honor of the grogram cloak Admiral Vernon wore in rough weather,[23] the term predates his famous order. It probably originates in the West Indies, perhaps of African etymology. The Royal Navy continued to give its sailors a daily rum ration, known as a "tot," until the practice was abolished after 31 July 1970.[24]
Today, a tot (totty) of rum is still issued on special occasions, using an order to "splice the mainbrace", which may only be given by the Queen, a member of the royal family or, on certain occasions, the admiralty board in the UK, with similar restrictions in other Commonwealth navies.[25] Recently, such occasions have included royal marriages or birthdays, or special anniversaries. In the days of daily rum rations, the order to "splice the mainbrace" meant double rations would be issued.
A legend involving naval rum and Horatio Nelson says that following his victory and death at the Battle of Trafalgar, Nelson's body was preserved in a cask of rum to allow transportation back to England. Upon arrival, however, the cask was opened and found to be empty. The [pickled] body was removed and, upon inspection, it was discovered that the sailors had drilled a hole in the bottom of the cask and drunk all the rum, hence the term "Nelson's blood" being used to describe rum. It also serves as the basis for the term tapping the admiral being used to describe surreptitiously sucking liquor from a cask through a straw. The details of the story are disputed, as many historians claim the cask contained French brandy, whilst others claim instead the term originated from a toast to Admiral Nelson.[26] Variations of the story, involving different notable corpses, have been in circulation for many years. The official record states merely that the body was placed in "refined spirits" and does not go into further detail.[27]
The Royal New Zealand Navy was the last naval force to give sailors a free daily tot of rum. The Royal Canadian Navy still gives a rum ration on special occasions; the rum is usually provided out of the commanding officer's fund, and is 150 proof (75%). It is consumed on the order "up spirits".[citation needed] The order to "splice the mainbrace" (i.e. take rum) can be given by the Queen as commander-in-chief, as occurred on 29 June 2010, when she gave the order to the Royal Canadian Navy as part of the celebration of their 100th anniversary.
Rum was also occasionally consumed mixed with gunpowder, either to test the proof of an alcohol ration (if the alcohol was diluted, the gunpowder would not ignite after being soaked with alcohol) or to seal a vow or show loyalty to a rebellion.[citation needed]
Colonial Australia[edit]
Beenleigh Rum Distillery, on the banks of the Albert River near Brisbane, Queensland, circa 1912
See also: Rum Rebellion
Rum became an important trade good in the early period of the colony of New South Wales. The value of rum was based upon the lack of coinage among the population of the colony, and due to the drink's ability to allow its consumer to temporarily forget about the lack of creature comforts available in the new colony. The value of rum was such that convict settlers could be induced to work the lands owned by officers of the New South Wales Corps. Due to rum's popularity among the settlers, the colony gained a reputation for drunkenness, though their alcohol consumption was less than levels commonly consumed in England at the time.[28]
Australia was so far away from Britain that the convict colony, established in 1788, faced severe food shortages, compounded by poor conditions for growing crops and the shortage of livestock. Eventually it was realized that it might be cheaper for India, instead of Britain, to supply the settlement of Sydney. By 1817, two out of every three ships which left Sydney went to Java or India, and cargoes from Bengal fed and equipped the colony. Casks of Bengal Rum (which was reputed to be stronger than Jamaican Rum, and not so sweet) were brought back in the depths of nearly every ship from India — although taken to shore clandestinely—to the dismay of the governors. Britons living in India grew wealthy through sending ships to Sydney "laden half with rice and half with bad spirits."[29]
Rum was intimately involved in the only military takeover of an Australian government, known as the Rum Rebellion. When William Bligh became governor of the colony, he attempted to remedy the perceived problem with drunkenness by outlawing the use of rum as a medium of exchange, but in response to Bligh's attempt to regulate the use of rum, in 1808, the New South Wales Corps marched with fixed bayonets to Government House and placed Bligh under arrest. The mutineers continued to control the colony until the arrival of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810.[30]
Categorization[edit]
Dividing rum into meaningful groupings is complicated because no single standard exists for what constitutes rum. Instead, rum is defined by the varying rules and laws of the nations producing the spirit. The differences in definitions include issues such as spirit proof, minimum aging, and even naming standards.
Examples of the differences in proof is Colombia, requiring their rums possess a minimum alcohol content of 50% alcohol by volume (ABV)[citation needed], while Chile and Venezuela require only a minimum of 40% ABV. Mexico requires rum be aged a minimum of eight months; the Dominican Republic, Panama and Venezuela require two years. Naming standards also vary. Argentina defines rums as white, gold, light, and extra light. Grenada and Barbados uses the terms white, overproof, and matured, while the United States defines rum, rum liqueur, and flavored rum.[31] In Australia, rum is divided into dark or red rum (underproof known as UP, overproof known as OP, and triple distilled) and white rum.
Despite these differences in standards and nomenclature, the following divisions are provided to help show the wide variety of rums produced.
Regional variations[edit]
The Bacardi building in Havana, Cuba
Within the Caribbean, each island or production area has a unique style. For the most part, these styles can be grouped by the language traditionally spoken. Due to the overwhelming influence of Puerto Rican rum, most rum consumed in the United States is produced in the "Spanish-speaking" style.
English-speaking islands and countries are known for darker rums with a fuller taste that retains a greater amount of the underlying molasses flavor. Rums from Antigua, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Barbados, Saint Lucia, Belize, Bermuda, Saint Kitts, the Demerara region of Guyana, and Jamaica are typical of this style.
In Jamaica particularly, a version called "Rude Rum" or "John Crow Batty" is served in some places and it is reportedly much stronger in alcohol content being listed as one of the 10 strongest drinks in the world, while it might also contain other intoxicants.[32] Ska star Prince Buster, who had a hit called "Rum and Coca-Cola", claimed in an interview that "when water was added [to rude rum] as a chaser the brew was so potent, smoke would rise out of the glass".[32] The term, denoting home made, strong rum, appears in New Zealand since at least the early 19th century.[33]
French-speaking islands are best known for their agricultural rums (rhum agricole). These rums, being produced exclusively from sugar cane juice, retain a greater amount of the original flavor of the sugar cane and are generally more expensive than molasses-based rums. Rums from Haiti, Guadeloupe and Martinique are typical of this style.
Spanish-speaking islands and countries traditionally produce añejo rums with a fairly smooth taste. Rums from Cuba, Guatemala, Panama, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, Colombia and Venezuela are typical of this style. Rum from the U.S. Virgin Islands is also of this style. The Canary Islands produces honey rum known as ron miel de Canarias and carries a geographical designation.
Cachaça is a spirit similar to rum that is produced in Brazil. Some countries, including the United States, classify cachaça as a type of rum. Seco, from Panama, is also a spirit similar to rum, but also similar to vodka since it is triple distilled.
Mexico produces a number of brands of light and dark rum, as well as other less-expensive flavored and unflavored sugarcane-based liquors, such as aguardiente de caña and charanda.
A spirit known as aguardiente, distilled from molasses and often infused with anise, with additional sugarcane juice added after distillation, is produced in Central America and northern South America.[34]
In West Africa, and particularly in Liberia, 'cane juice' (also known as Liberian rum[35] or simply CJ within Liberia itself[36]) is a cheap, strong spirit distilled from sugarcane, which can be as strong as 43% ABV [86 proof].[37] A refined cane spirit has also been produced in South Africa since the 1950s, simply known as cane.
Within Europe, in the Czech Republic a similar spirit made from sugar beet is known as Tuzemak.
In Germany, a cheap substitute for genuine dark rum is called Rum-Verschnitt (literally: blended or "cut" rum). This distilled beverage is made of genuine dark rum (often from Jamaica), rectified spirit, and water. Very often, caramel coloring is used, too. The relative amount of genuine rum it contains can be quite low, since the legal minimum is at only 5%. In Austria, a similar rum called Inländerrum or domestic rum is available. However, Austrian Inländerrum is always a spiced rum, such as the brand Stroh; German Rum-Verschnitt, in contrast, is never spiced or flavored.
Grades[edit]
The grades and variations used to describe rum depend on the location where a rum was produced. Despite these variations, the following terms are frequently used to describe various types of rum:
Dark rums, also known by their particular color, such as brown, black, or red rums, are classes a grade darker than gold rums. They are usually made from caramelized sugar or molasses. They are generally aged longer, in heavily charred barrels, giving them much stronger flavors than either light or gold rums, and hints of spices can be detected, along with a strong molasses or caramel overtone. They commonly provide substance in rum drinks, as well as color. In addition, dark rum is the type most commonly used in cooking. Most dark rums come from areas such as Jamaica, Haiti, and Martinique.
Flavored rums are infused with flavors of fruits, such as banana, mango, orange, pineapple, coconut, starfruit or lime. These are generally less than 40% ABV (80 proof). They mostly serve to flavor similarly-themed tropical drinks but are also often drunk neat or with ice. This infusion of flavors occurs after fermentation and distillation. Various chemicals are added to the alcohol to simulate the tastes of food.
Gold rums, also called "amber" rums, are medium-bodied rums that are generally aged. These gain their dark color from aging in wooden barrels (usually the charred, white oak barrels that are the byproduct of Bourbon whiskey). They have more flavor and are stronger-tasting than light rum, and can be considered midway between light rum and the darker varieties.
Light rums, also referred to as "silver" or "white" rums, in general, have very little flavor aside from a general sweetness. Light rums are sometimes filtered after aging to remove any color. The Brazilian cachaça is generally this type, but some varieties are more akin to "gold rums". The majority of light rums come from Puerto Rico. Their milder flavors make them popular for use in mixed drinks, as opposed to drinking them straight.
Overproof rums are much higher than the standard 40% ABV (80 proof), with many as high as 75% (150 proof) to 80% (160 proof) available. Two examples are Bacardi 151 or Pitorro moonshine. They are usually used in mixed drinks.
Premium rums, as with other sipping spirits such as Cognac and Scotch, are in a special market category. These are generally from boutique brands that sell carefully produced and aged rums. They have more character and flavor than their "mixing" counterparts and are generally consumed straight.
Spiced rums obtain their flavors through the addition of spices and, sometimes, caramel. Most are darker in color, and based on gold rums. Some are significantly darker, while many cheaper brands are made from inexpensive white rums and darkened with caramel color. Among the spices added are cinnamon, rosemary, absinthe/aniseed, or pepper.
Production method[edit]
Unlike some other spirits, rum has no defined production methods. Instead, rum production is based on traditional styles that vary between locations and distillers.
Fermentation[edit]
Sugarcane is harvested to make sugarcane juice and molasses.
Artisanal Rum distillery along the N7 road
Most rum is produced from molasses, which is made from sugarcane. A rum's quality is dependent on the quality and variety of the sugar cane that was used to create it. The sugar cane's quality depends on the soil type and climate that it was grown in. Within the Caribbean, much of this molasses is from Brazil.[18] A notable exception is the French-speaking islands, where sugarcane juice is the preferred base ingredient.[2] In Brazil itself, the distilled alcoholic beverage derived from cane juice is distinguished from rum and called cachaça.
Yeast and water are added to the base ingredient to start the fermentation process. While some rum producers allow wild yeasts to perform the fermentation, most use specific strains of yeast to help provide a consistent taste and predictable fermentation time.[38] Dunder, the yeast-rich foam from previous fermentations, is the traditional yeast source in Jamaica.[39] "The yeast employed will determine the final taste and aroma profile," says Jamaican master blender Joy Spence.[2] Distillers who make lighter rums, such as Bacardi, prefer to use faster-working yeasts.[2] Use of slower-working yeasts causes more esters to accumulate during fermentation, allowing for a fuller-tasting rum.[38]
Fermentation products like 2-ethyl-3-methyl butyric acid and esters like ethyl butanoate and ethyl hexanoate give rise to the sweet and fruitiness of rum.[1]
Distillation[edit]
As with all other aspects of rum production, no standard method is used for distillation. While some producers work in batches using pot stills, most rum production is done using column still distillation.[38] Pot still output contains more congeners than the output from column stills, so produces fuller-tasting rums.[2]
Aging and blending[edit]
Many countries require rum to be aged for at least one year. This aging is commonly performed in used bourbon casks,[38] but may also be performed in other types of wooden casks or stainless steel tanks. The aging process determines the color of the rum. When aged in oak casks, it becomes dark, whereas rum aged in stainless steel tanks remains virtually colorless.
Due to the tropical climate, common to most rum-producing areas, rum matures at a much higher rate than is typical for whisky or brandy. An indication of this higher rate is the angels' share, or amount of product lost to evaporation. While products aged in France or Scotland see about 2% loss each year, tropical rum producers may see as much as 10%.[38]
After aging, rum is normally blended to ensure a consistent flavor. Blending is the final step in the rum-making process.[40] As part of this blending process, light rums may be filtered to remove any color gained during aging. For darker rums, caramel may be added to adjust the color of the final product.
In cuisine[edit]
Besides rum punches, cocktails such as the Cuba libre and daiquiri have well-known stories of their invention in the Caribbean. Tiki culture in the U.S. helped expand rum's horizons with inventions such as the mai tai and zombie. Other well-known cocktails containing rum include the piña colada, a drink made popular in America by Rupert Holmes' song "Escape (The Piña Colada Song)",[41] and the mojito. Cold-weather drinks made with rum include the rum toddy and hot buttered rum.[42]
A number of local specialties also use rum, including Bermuda's Dark 'N' Stormy (Gosling's Black Seal rum with ginger beer), the painkiller from the British Virgin Islands, and a New Orleans cocktail known as the Hurricane. Jagertee is a mixture of rum and black tea popular in colder parts of Central Europe and served on special occasions in the British Army, where it is called Gunfire. Ti' Punch, French Creole for "petit punch", is a traditional drink in parts of the French West Indies.
Rum may also be used as a base in the manufacture of liqueurs and syrups, such as falernum.
Rum is used in a number of cooked dishes as a flavoring agent in items such as rum balls or rum cakes. It is commonly used to macerate fruit used in fruitcakes and is also used in marinades for some Caribbean dishes. Rum is also used in the preparation of rumtopf, bananas Foster and some hard sauces. Rum is sometimes mixed into ice cream, often with raisins, and in baking it is occasionally used in Joe Froggers, a type of cookie from New England
See also[edit]
iconLiquor portal
Drink portal
Cachaça
Charanda
Clairin
List of rum producers
Rhum agricole
Rum cake
Rum cocktails
Rum row
Rum-running
Tafia
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Curtis (2006), pp. 34–35
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Pacult, F. Paul (July 2002). "Mapping Rum By Region". Wine Enthusiast Magazine.
Jump up ^ Blue, p. 72–73
^ Jump up to: a b Blue p. 73
Jump up ^ "The West Indies Rum Distillery Limited". WIRD Ltd. 2009. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Wayne Curtis. "The Five Biggest Rum Myths". Liquor.com.
Jump up ^ Rajiv. M (12 March 2003). "A Caribbean drink". The Hindu.
Jump up ^ Curtis (2006), p.14
Jump up ^ Blue p. 72
^ Jump up to: a b Blue p. 70
Jump up ^ Cavalcante, Messias Soares. A verdadeira história da cachaça. São Paulo: Sá Editora, 2011. 608p. ISBN 978-85-88193-62-8
Jump up ^ "Arkeologerna: Skatter i havet". UR Play.
Jump up ^ Blue p. 74
Jump up ^ Roueché, Berton. Alcohol in Human Culture. in: Lucia, Salvatore P. (Ed.) Alcohol and Civilization New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963 p. 178
Jump up ^ Blue p. 76
^ Jump up to: a b Tannahill p. 295
Jump up ^ Tannahill p. 296
^ Jump up to: a b Frost, Doug (6 January 2005). "Rum makers distill unsavory history into fresh products". San Francisco Chronicle.
Jump up ^ Rorabaugh, W.J. (1981). The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition. Oxford University Press. pp. 152–154. ISBN 978-0195029901.
Jump up ^ Buckner, Timothy Ryan (2005). "Constructing Identities on the Frontier of Slavery, Natchez Mississippi, 1760-1860" (PDF). p. 129. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Pack p. 15
Jump up ^ Blue p. 77
Jump up ^ Tannahill p. 273
Jump up ^ Pack p. 123
Jump up ^ Chapter 6 "Supplementary Income," para.0661 "Extra and other issues," Ministry of Defence regulations
Jump up ^ Blue p. 78
Jump up ^ Mikkelson, Barbara (9 May 2006). "Body found in barrel". Urban Legends Reference Pages. Snopes.com. Archived from the original on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 15 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Clarke p. 26
Jump up ^ Blainey (1966)
Jump up ^ Clarke p. 29
Jump up ^ Blue p. 81–82
^ Jump up to: a b "The drink that nearly knocked me out with one sniff" by Nick Davis, BBC News, 6 September 2015
Jump up ^ "At a temperance meeting recently held in New Zealand, an intemperate chief addressed the audience, to the surprise of all, in favor of banning rum from the country. Some rude-rum selling foreigners interrupted him with a sneer that he was the greatest drunkard in the region". From The Religious Monitor, or Evangelical Repository Vol. XIV, Hoffman & White, 1837–39, p. 480.
Jump up ^ Selsky, Andrew (15 September 2003). "Age-old drink losing kick". The Miami Herald.
Jump up ^ "Tourism Industry in Liberia". Uniboa.org. Retrieved 5 December 2009.
Jump up ^ Surreptitious drug abuse and the new Liberian reality: an overview
Jump up ^ Photo-article on Liberian village life
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Vaughan, Mark (1 June 1994). "Tropical Delights". Cigar Aficionado.
Jump up ^ Cooper p. 54
Jump up ^ "Manufacturing Rum". Archived from the original on 20 November 2003. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Blue p. 80
Jump up ^ Cooper p. 54–55
References[edit]
Blainey, Geoffrey (1966). The Tyranny of Distance: How Distance Shaped Australia's History. Sun Books, Australia. ISBN 978-0333338360.
Blue, Anthony Dias (2004). The Complete Book of Spirits : A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-054218-7.
Curtis, Wayne (2006). And a bottle of rum - a history of the New World in ten cocktails. Crown Publishers. p. 285. ISBN 9781400051670.
Clarke, Frank G. (2002). The History of Australia. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31498-5.
Cooper, Rosalind (1982). Spirits & Liqueurs. HPBooks. ISBN 0-89586-194-1.
Foley, Ray (2006). Bartending for Dummies: A reference for the Rest of Us. Wiley Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-470-05056-X.
Pack, James (1982). Nelson's Blood: The Story of Naval Rum. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-944-8.
Rorabaugh, W.J. (1981). The Alcoholic Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195029901.
Tannahill, Reay (1973). Food in History. Stein and Day. ISBN 0-8128-1437-1.
Further reading[edit]
Williams, Ian (2005). Rum: A Social and Sociable History of the Real Spirit of 1776. Nation Books. (extract)
Broom, Dave (2003). Rum. Abbeville Press.
Arkell, Julie (1999). Classic Rum. Prion Books.
Coulombe, Charles A (2004). Rum: The Epic Story of the Drink that Changed Conquered the World. Citadel Press.
Smith, Frederick (2005). Caribbean Rum: A Social and Economic History. University Press of Florida. (Introduction)
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Rum
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rum.
Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Rum.
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Rum
Wikisource-logo.svg "Rum". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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Rum
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the beverage. For other uses, see Rum (disambiguation).
Rum display in a liquor store
Government House rum, manufactured by the Virgin Islands Company distillery in St. Croix, circa 1941
Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane byproducts, such as molasses, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a clear liquid, is then usually aged in oak barrels.
The majority of the world's rum production occurs in the Caribbean and Latin America. Rum is also produced in Scotland, Austria, Spain, Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, the Philippines, India, Reunion Island, Mauritius, South Africa, Taiwan, Thailand, Japan, the United States, and Canada.
Rums are produced in various grades. Light rums are commonly used in cocktails, whereas "golden" and "dark" rums were typically consumed straight or neat, on the rocks, or used for cooking, but are now commonly consumed with mixers. Premium rums are also available, made to be consumed either straight or iced.
Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies as well as in The Maritimes and Newfoundland. This beverage has famous associations with the Royal Navy (where it was mixed with water or beer to make grog) and piracy (where it was consumed as bumbo). Rum has also served as a popular medium of economic exchange, used to help fund enterprises such as slavery (see Triangular trade), organized crime, and military insurgencies (e.g., the American Revolution and Australia's Rum Rebellion).
Contents [hide]
1Etymology
2History
2.1Origins
2.2Colonial America
2.3Naval rum
2.4Colonial Australia
3Categorization
3.1Regional variations
3.2Grades
4Production method
4.1Fermentation
4.2Distillation
4.3Aging and blending
5In cuisine
6See also
7Notes
8References
9Further reading
10External links
Etymology[edit]
The Mount Gay Rum visitors centre claims to be the world's oldest remaining rum company, with earliest confirmed deed from 1703.
The origin of the word "rum" is generally unclear. In an 1824 essay about the word's origin, Samuel Morewood, a British etymologist, suggested it might be from the British slang term for "the best", as in "having a rum time." He wrote:
As spirits, extracted from molasses, could not well be ranked under the name whiskey, brandy, or arrack, it would be called rum, to denote its excellence or superior quality.[1]
Given the harsh taste of early rum, this is unlikely. Morewood later suggested another possibility: that it was taken from the last syllable of the Latin word for sugar, saccharum, an explanation commonly heard today.[1]
Other etymologists have mentioned the Romani word rum, meaning "strong" or "potent". These words have been linked to the ramboozle and rumfustian, both popular British drinks in the mid-17th century. However, neither was made with rum, but rather eggs, ale, wine, sugar, and various spices. The most probable origin is as a truncated version of rumbullion or rumbustion.[2] Both words surfaced in English about the same time as rum did (Joan Coromines states 1651 as the first recording of "rumbullion", and 1654 for "rum" -1770 for the first recording in Spanish of ron), and were slang terms for "tumult" or "uproar". This is a far more convincing explanation, and brings the image of fractious men fighting in entanglements at island tippling houses, which are early versions of the bar.[1]
Another claim is the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, a drinking glass.[3] Other options include contractions of the words iterum, Latin for "again, a second time", or arôme, French for aroma.[4]
Regardless of the original source, the name was already in common use by 1654, when the General Court of Connecticut ordered the confiscations of "whatsoever Barbados liquors, commonly called rum, kill devil and the like".[5] A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor "whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc."[4]
In current usage, the name used for a rum is often based on its place of origin.
For rums from Spanish-speaking locales, the word ron is used. A ron añejo ("old rum") indicates a rum that has been significantly aged and is often used for premium products.
Rhum is the term that typically distinguishes rum made from fresh sugar cane juice from rum made from molasses in French-speaking locales like Martinique.[6] A rhum vieux ("old rum") is an aged French rum that meets several other requirements.
Some of the many other names for rum are Nelson's blood, kill-devil, demon water, pirate's drink, navy neaters, and Barbados water.[7] A version of rum from Newfoundland is referred to by the name screech, while some low-grade West Indies rums are called tafia.[8]
History[edit]
Origins[edit]
The precursors to rum date back to antiquity. Development of fermented drinks produced from sugarcane juice is believed to have first occurred either in ancient India or in China,[2] and to have spread from there. An example of such an early drink is brum. Produced by the Malay people, brum dates back thousands of years.[9] Marco Polo also recorded a 14th-century account of a "very good wine of sugar" that was offered to him in the area that became modern-day Iran.[2]
The first distillation of rum took place on the sugarcane plantations of the Caribbean in the 17th century. Plantation slaves first discovered molasses, a byproduct of the sugar refining process, could be fermented into alcohol.[10] Later, distillation of these alcoholic byproducts concentrated the alcohol and removed impurities, producing the first true rums. Tradition suggests rum first originated on the island of Barbados. However, in the decade of the 1620s, rum production was recorded in Brazil.[11] A liquid identified as rum has been found in a tin bottle found on the Swedish warship Vasa, which sank in 1628.[12]
A 1651 document from Barbados stated, "The chief fuddling they make in the island is Rumbullion, alias Kill-Divil, and this is made of sugar canes distilled, a hot, hellish, and terrible liquor."[10]
Colonial America[edit]
Pirates carrying rum to shore to purchase slaves as depicted in The Pirates Own Book by Charles Ellms
After rum's development in the Caribbean, the drink's popularity spread to Colonial North America. To support the demand for the drink, the first rum distillery in the British colonies of North America was set up in 1664 on present-day Staten Island. Boston, Massachusetts had a distillery three years later.[13] The manufacture of rum became early Colonial New England's largest and most prosperous industry.[14] New England became a distilling center due to the technical, metalworking and cooperage skills and abundant lumber; the rum produced there was lighter, more like whiskey. Rhode Island rum even joined gold as an accepted currency in Europe for a period of time.[15] Estimates of rum consumption in the American colonies before the American Revolutionary War had every man, woman, or child drinking an average of 3 imperial gallons (14 l) of rum each year.[16]
To support this demand for the molasses to produce rum, along with the increasing demand for sugar in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries, a labor source to work the sugar plantations in the Caribbean was needed. A triangular trade was established between Africa, the Caribbean, and the colonies to help support this need.[17] The exchange of slaves, molasses, and rum was quite profitable, and the disruption to the trade caused by the Sugar Act in 1764 may have even helped cause the American Revolution.[16] In the slave trade, rum was also used as a medium of exchange. For example, the slave Venture Smith, whose history was later published, had been purchased in Africa for four gallons of rum plus a piece of calico.
The popularity of rum continued after the American Revolution, with George Washington insisting on a barrel of Barbados rum at his 1789 inauguration.[18]
Rum started to play an important role in the political system; candidates attempted to influence the outcome of an election through their generosity with rum. The people would attend the hustings to see which candidate appeared more generous. The candidate was expected to drink with the people to show he was independent and truly a republican. In the 1833 Mississippi state senate election, one candidate, Judge Edward Turner, poured his drinks and socialized with the people. He was more personal and it appeared as if he was going to win. The other candidate, a Methodist parson named Dick Stewart, announced he would not be pouring their drinks and they could have as much as they wanted; Dick Stewart won.[19][20]
Eventually the restrictions on sugar imports from the British islands of the Caribbean, combined with the development of American whiskey, led to a decline in the drink's popularity in North America.
Naval rum[edit]
See also: Rum ration
Wrens during World War II serving rum to a sailor from a tub inscribed "The King God Bless Him" - Robert Sargent Austin
Rum grog
Rum's association with piracy began with British privateers trading on the valuable commodity. As some of the privateers became pirates and buccaneers, their fondness for rum remained, the association between the two only being strengthened by literary works such as Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island.[21]
The association of rum with the Royal Navy began in 1655, when the British fleet captured the island of Jamaica. With the availability of domestically produced rum, the British changed the daily ration of liquor given to seamen from French brandy to rum.[22]
Navy Rum was originally a blended rum mixed from rums locally produced in the West Indies. It varies in strength from 95.5 Proof (47.75% ABV) to 114 Proof (57% ABV).
While the ration was originally given neat, or mixed with lime juice, the practice of watering down the rum began around 1740. To help minimize the effect of the alcohol on his sailors, Admiral Edward Vernon had the rum ration watered producing a mixture that became known as grog. While many believe the term was coined in honor of the grogram cloak Admiral Vernon wore in rough weather,[23] the term predates his famous order. It probably originates in the West Indies, perhaps of African etymology. The Royal Navy continued to give its sailors a daily rum ration, known as a "tot," until the practice was abolished after 31 July 1970.[24]
Today, a tot (totty) of rum is still issued on special occasions, using an order to "splice the mainbrace", which may only be given by the Queen, a member of the royal family or, on certain occasions, the admiralty board in the UK, with similar restrictions in other Commonwealth navies.[25] Recently, such occasions have included royal marriages or birthdays, or special anniversaries. In the days of daily rum rations, the order to "splice the mainbrace" meant double rations would be issued.
A legend involving naval rum and Horatio Nelson says that following his victory and death at the Battle of Trafalgar, Nelson's body was preserved in a cask of rum to allow transportation back to England. Upon arrival, however, the cask was opened and found to be empty. The [pickled] body was removed and, upon inspection, it was discovered that the sailors had drilled a hole in the bottom of the cask and drunk all the rum, hence the term "Nelson's blood" being used to describe rum. It also serves as the basis for the term tapping the admiral being used to describe surreptitiously sucking liquor from a cask through a straw. The details of the story are disputed, as many historians claim the cask contained French brandy, whilst others claim instead the term originated from a toast to Admiral Nelson.[26] Variations of the story, involving different notable corpses, have been in circulation for many years. The official record states merely that the body was placed in "refined spirits" and does not go into further detail.[27]
The Royal New Zealand Navy was the last naval force to give sailors a free daily tot of rum. The Royal Canadian Navy still gives a rum ration on special occasions; the rum is usually provided out of the commanding officer's fund, and is 150 proof (75%). It is consumed on the order "up spirits".[citation needed] The order to "splice the mainbrace" (i.e. take rum) can be given by the Queen as commander-in-chief, as occurred on 29 June 2010, when she gave the order to the Royal Canadian Navy as part of the celebration of their 100th anniversary.
Rum was also occasionally consumed mixed with gunpowder, either to test the proof of an alcohol ration (if the alcohol was diluted, the gunpowder would not ignite after being soaked with alcohol) or to seal a vow or show loyalty to a rebellion.[citation needed]
Colonial Australia[edit]
Beenleigh Rum Distillery, on the banks of the Albert River near Brisbane, Queensland, circa 1912
See also: Rum Rebellion
Rum became an important trade good in the early period of the colony of New South Wales. The value of rum was based upon the lack of coinage among the population of the colony, and due to the drink's ability to allow its consumer to temporarily forget about the lack of creature comforts available in the new colony. The value of rum was such that convict settlers could be induced to work the lands owned by officers of the New South Wales Corps. Due to rum's popularity among the settlers, the colony gained a reputation for drunkenness, though their alcohol consumption was less than levels commonly consumed in England at the time.[28]
Australia was so far away from Britain that the convict colony, established in 1788, faced severe food shortages, compounded by poor conditions for growing crops and the shortage of livestock. Eventually it was realized that it might be cheaper for India, instead of Britain, to supply the settlement of Sydney. By 1817, two out of every three ships which left Sydney went to Java or India, and cargoes from Bengal fed and equipped the colony. Casks of Bengal Rum (which was reputed to be stronger than Jamaican Rum, and not so sweet) were brought back in the depths of nearly every ship from India — although taken to shore clandestinely—to the dismay of the governors. Britons living in India grew wealthy through sending ships to Sydney "laden half with rice and half with bad spirits."[29]
Rum was intimately involved in the only military takeover of an Australian government, known as the Rum Rebellion. When William Bligh became governor of the colony, he attempted to remedy the perceived problem with drunkenness by outlawing the use of rum as a medium of exchange, but in response to Bligh's attempt to regulate the use of rum, in 1808, the New South Wales Corps marched with fixed bayonets to Government House and placed Bligh under arrest. The mutineers continued to control the colony until the arrival of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810.[30]
Categorization[edit]
Dividing rum into meaningful groupings is complicated because no single standard exists for what constitutes rum. Instead, rum is defined by the varying rules and laws of the nations producing the spirit. The differences in definitions include issues such as spirit proof, minimum aging, and even naming standards.
Examples of the differences in proof is Colombia, requiring their rums possess a minimum alcohol content of 50% alcohol by volume (ABV)[citation needed], while Chile and Venezuela require only a minimum of 40% ABV. Mexico requires rum be aged a minimum of eight months; the Dominican Republic, Panama and Venezuela require two years. Naming standards also vary. Argentina defines rums as white, gold, light, and extra light. Grenada and Barbados uses the terms white, overproof, and matured, while the United States defines rum, rum liqueur, and flavored rum.[31] In Australia, rum is divided into dark or red rum (underproof known as UP, overproof known as OP, and triple distilled) and white rum.
Despite these differences in standards and nomenclature, the following divisions are provided to help show the wide variety of rums produced.
Regional variations[edit]
The Bacardi building in Havana, Cuba
Within the Caribbean, each island or production area has a unique style. For the most part, these styles can be grouped by the language traditionally spoken. Due to the overwhelming influence of Puerto Rican rum, most rum consumed in the United States is produced in the "Spanish-speaking" style.
English-speaking islands and countries are known for darker rums with a fuller taste that retains a greater amount of the underlying molasses flavor. Rums from Antigua, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Barbados, Saint Lucia, Belize, Bermuda, Saint Kitts, the Demerara region of Guyana, and Jamaica are typical of this style.
In Jamaica particularly, a version called "Rude Rum" or "John Crow Batty" is served in some places and it is reportedly much stronger in alcohol content being listed as one of the 10 strongest drinks in the world, while it might also contain other intoxicants.[32] Ska star Prince Buster, who had a hit called "Rum and Coca-Cola", claimed in an interview that "when water was added [to rude rum] as a chaser the brew was so potent, smoke would rise out of the glass".[32] The term, denoting home made, strong rum, appears in New Zealand since at least the early 19th century.[33]
French-speaking islands are best known for their agricultural rums (rhum agricole). These rums, being produced exclusively from sugar cane juice, retain a greater amount of the original flavor of the sugar cane and are generally more expensive than molasses-based rums. Rums from Haiti, Guadeloupe and Martinique are typical of this style.
Spanish-speaking islands and countries traditionally produce añejo rums with a fairly smooth taste. Rums from Cuba, Guatemala, Panama, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, Colombia and Venezuela are typical of this style. Rum from the U.S. Virgin Islands is also of this style. The Canary Islands produces honey rum known as ron miel de Canarias and carries a geographical designation.
Cachaça is a spirit similar to rum that is produced in Brazil. Some countries, including the United States, classify cachaça as a type of rum. Seco, from Panama, is also a spirit similar to rum, but also similar to vodka since it is triple distilled.
Mexico produces a number of brands of light and dark rum, as well as other less-expensive flavored and unflavored sugarcane-based liquors, such as aguardiente de caña and charanda.
A spirit known as aguardiente, distilled from molasses and often infused with anise, with additional sugarcane juice added after distillation, is produced in Central America and northern South America.[34]
In West Africa, and particularly in Liberia, 'cane juice' (also known as Liberian rum[35] or simply CJ within Liberia itself[36]) is a cheap, strong spirit distilled from sugarcane, which can be as strong as 43% ABV [86 proof].[37] A refined cane spirit has also been produced in South Africa since the 1950s, simply known as cane.
Within Europe, in the Czech Republic a similar spirit made from sugar beet is known as Tuzemak.
In Germany, a cheap substitute for genuine dark rum is called Rum-Verschnitt (literally: blended or "cut" rum). This distilled beverage is made of genuine dark rum (often from Jamaica), rectified spirit, and water. Very often, caramel coloring is used, too. The relative amount of genuine rum it contains can be quite low, since the legal minimum is at only 5%. In Austria, a similar rum called Inländerrum or domestic rum is available. However, Austrian Inländerrum is always a spiced rum, such as the brand Stroh; German Rum-Verschnitt, in contrast, is never spiced or flavored.
Grades[edit]
The grades and variations used to describe rum depend on the location where a rum was produced. Despite these variations, the following terms are frequently used to describe various types of rum:
Dark rums, also known by their particular color, such as brown, black, or red rums, are classes a grade darker than gold rums. They are usually made from caramelized sugar or molasses. They are generally aged longer, in heavily charred barrels, giving them much stronger flavors than either light or gold rums, and hints of spices can be detected, along with a strong molasses or caramel overtone. They commonly provide substance in rum drinks, as well as color. In addition, dark rum is the type most commonly used in cooking. Most dark rums come from areas such as Jamaica, Haiti, and Martinique.
Flavored rums are infused with flavors of fruits, such as banana, mango, orange, pineapple, coconut, starfruit or lime. These are generally less than 40% ABV (80 proof). They mostly serve to flavor similarly-themed tropical drinks but are also often drunk neat or with ice. This infusion of flavors occurs after fermentation and distillation. Various chemicals are added to the alcohol to simulate the tastes of food.
Gold rums, also called "amber" rums, are medium-bodied rums that are generally aged. These gain their dark color from aging in wooden barrels (usually the charred, white oak barrels that are the byproduct of Bourbon whiskey). They have more flavor and are stronger-tasting than light rum, and can be considered midway between light rum and the darker varieties.
Light rums, also referred to as "silver" or "white" rums, in general, have very little flavor aside from a general sweetness. Light rums are sometimes filtered after aging to remove any color. The Brazilian cachaça is generally this type, but some varieties are more akin to "gold rums". The majority of light rums come from Puerto Rico. Their milder flavors make them popular for use in mixed drinks, as opposed to drinking them straight.
Overproof rums are much higher than the standard 40% ABV (80 proof), with many as high as 75% (150 proof) to 80% (160 proof) available. Two examples are Bacardi 151 or Pitorro moonshine. They are usually used in mixed drinks.
Premium rums, as with other sipping spirits such as Cognac and Scotch, are in a special market category. These are generally from boutique brands that sell carefully produced and aged rums. They have more character and flavor than their "mixing" counterparts and are generally consumed straight.
Spiced rums obtain their flavors through the addition of spices and, sometimes, caramel. Most are darker in color, and based on gold rums. Some are significantly darker, while many cheaper brands are made from inexpensive white rums and darkened with caramel color. Among the spices added are cinnamon, rosemary, absinthe/aniseed, or pepper.
Production method[edit]
Unlike some other spirits, rum has no defined production methods. Instead, rum production is based on traditional styles that vary between locations and distillers.
Fermentation[edit]
Sugarcane is harvested to make sugarcane juice and molasses.
Artisanal Rum distillery along the N7 road
Most rum is produced from molasses, which is made from sugarcane. A rum's quality is dependent on the quality and variety of the sugar cane that was used to create it. The sugar cane's quality depends on the soil type and climate that it was grown in. Within the Caribbean, much of this molasses is from Brazil.[18] A notable exception is the French-speaking islands, where sugarcane juice is the preferred base ingredient.[2] In Brazil itself, the distilled alcoholic beverage derived from cane juice is distinguished from rum and called cachaça.
Yeast and water are added to the base ingredient to start the fermentation process. While some rum producers allow wild yeasts to perform the fermentation, most use specific strains of yeast to help provide a consistent taste and predictable fermentation time.[38] Dunder, the yeast-rich foam from previous fermentations, is the traditional yeast source in Jamaica.[39] "The yeast employed will determine the final taste and aroma profile," says Jamaican master blender Joy Spence.[2] Distillers who make lighter rums, such as Bacardi, prefer to use faster-working yeasts.[2] Use of slower-working yeasts causes more esters to accumulate during fermentation, allowing for a fuller-tasting rum.[38]
Fermentation products like 2-ethyl-3-methyl butyric acid and esters like ethyl butanoate and ethyl hexanoate give rise to the sweet and fruitiness of rum.[1]
Distillation[edit]
As with all other aspects of rum production, no standard method is used for distillation. While some producers work in batches using pot stills, most rum production is done using column still distillation.[38] Pot still output contains more congeners than the output from column stills, so produces fuller-tasting rums.[2]
Aging and blending[edit]
Many countries require rum to be aged for at least one year. This aging is commonly performed in used bourbon casks,[38] but may also be performed in other types of wooden casks or stainless steel tanks. The aging process determines the color of the rum. When aged in oak casks, it becomes dark, whereas rum aged in stainless steel tanks remains virtually colorless.
Due to the tropical climate, common to most rum-producing areas, rum matures at a much higher rate than is typical for whisky or brandy. An indication of this higher rate is the angels' share, or amount of product lost to evaporation. While products aged in France or Scotland see about 2% loss each year, tropical rum producers may see as much as 10%.[38]
After aging, rum is normally blended to ensure a consistent flavor. Blending is the final step in the rum-making process.[40] As part of this blending process, light rums may be filtered to remove any color gained during aging. For darker rums, caramel may be added to adjust the color of the final product.
In cuisine[edit]
Besides rum punches, cocktails such as the Cuba libre and daiquiri have well-known stories of their invention in the Caribbean. Tiki culture in the U.S. helped expand rum's horizons with inventions such as the mai tai and zombie. Other well-known cocktails containing rum include the piña colada, a drink made popular in America by Rupert Holmes' song "Escape (The Piña Colada Song)",[41] and the mojito. Cold-weather drinks made with rum include the rum toddy and hot buttered rum.[42]
A number of local specialties also use rum, including Bermuda's Dark 'N' Stormy (Gosling's Black Seal rum with ginger beer), the painkiller from the British Virgin Islands, and a New Orleans cocktail known as the Hurricane. Jagertee is a mixture of rum and black tea popular in colder parts of Central Europe and served on special occasions in the British Army, where it is called Gunfire. Ti' Punch, French Creole for "petit punch", is a traditional drink in parts of the French West Indies.
Rum may also be used as a base in the manufacture of liqueurs and syrups, such as falernum.
Rum is used in a number of cooked dishes as a flavoring agent in items such as rum balls or rum cakes. It is commonly used to macerate fruit used in fruitcakes and is also used in marinades for some Caribbean dishes. Rum is also used in the preparation of rumtopf, bananas Foster and some hard sauces. Rum is sometimes mixed into ice cream, often with raisins, and in baking it is occasionally used in Joe Froggers, a type of cookie from New England
See also[edit]
iconLiquor portal
Drink portal
Cachaça
Charanda
Clairin
List of rum producers
Rhum agricole
Rum cake
Rum cocktails
Rum row
Rum-running
Tafia
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Curtis (2006), pp. 34–35
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Pacult, F. Paul (July 2002). "Mapping Rum By Region". Wine Enthusiast Magazine.
Jump up ^ Blue, p. 72–73
^ Jump up to: a b Blue p. 73
Jump up ^ "The West Indies Rum Distillery Limited". WIRD Ltd. 2009. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Wayne Curtis. "The Five Biggest Rum Myths". Liquor.com.
Jump up ^ Rajiv. M (12 March 2003). "A Caribbean drink". The Hindu.
Jump up ^ Curtis (2006), p.14
Jump up ^ Blue p. 72
^ Jump up to: a b Blue p. 70
Jump up ^ Cavalcante, Messias Soares. A verdadeira história da cachaça. São Paulo: Sá Editora, 2011. 608p. ISBN 978-85-88193-62-8
Jump up ^ "Arkeologerna: Skatter i havet". UR Play.
Jump up ^ Blue p. 74
Jump up ^ Roueché, Berton. Alcohol in Human Culture. in: Lucia, Salvatore P. (Ed.) Alcohol and Civilization New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963 p. 178
Jump up ^ Blue p. 76
^ Jump up to: a b Tannahill p. 295
Jump up ^ Tannahill p. 296
^ Jump up to: a b Frost, Doug (6 January 2005). "Rum makers distill unsavory history into fresh products". San Francisco Chronicle.
Jump up ^ Rorabaugh, W.J. (1981). The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition. Oxford University Press. pp. 152–154. ISBN 978-0195029901.
Jump up ^ Buckner, Timothy Ryan (2005). "Constructing Identities on the Frontier of Slavery, Natchez Mississippi, 1760-1860" (PDF). p. 129. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Pack p. 15
Jump up ^ Blue p. 77
Jump up ^ Tannahill p. 273
Jump up ^ Pack p. 123
Jump up ^ Chapter 6 "Supplementary Income," para.0661 "Extra and other issues," Ministry of Defence regulations
Jump up ^ Blue p. 78
Jump up ^ Mikkelson, Barbara (9 May 2006). "Body found in barrel". Urban Legends Reference Pages. Snopes.com. Archived from the original on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 15 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Clarke p. 26
Jump up ^ Blainey (1966)
Jump up ^ Clarke p. 29
Jump up ^ Blue p. 81–82
^ Jump up to: a b "The drink that nearly knocked me out with one sniff" by Nick Davis, BBC News, 6 September 2015
Jump up ^ "At a temperance meeting recently held in New Zealand, an intemperate chief addressed the audience, to the surprise of all, in favor of banning rum from the country. Some rude-rum selling foreigners interrupted him with a sneer that he was the greatest drunkard in the region". From The Religious Monitor, or Evangelical Repository Vol. XIV, Hoffman & White, 1837–39, p. 480.
Jump up ^ Selsky, Andrew (15 September 2003). "Age-old drink losing kick". The Miami Herald.
Jump up ^ "Tourism Industry in Liberia". Uniboa.org. Retrieved 5 December 2009.
Jump up ^ Surreptitious drug abuse and the new Liberian reality: an overview
Jump up ^ Photo-article on Liberian village life
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Vaughan, Mark (1 June 1994). "Tropical Delights". Cigar Aficionado.
Jump up ^ Cooper p. 54
Jump up ^ "Manufacturing Rum". Archived from the original on 20 November 2003. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Blue p. 80
Jump up ^ Cooper p. 54–55
References[edit]
Blainey, Geoffrey (1966). The Tyranny of Distance: How Distance Shaped Australia's History. Sun Books, Australia. ISBN 978-0333338360.
Blue, Anthony Dias (2004). The Complete Book of Spirits : A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-054218-7.
Curtis, Wayne (2006). And a bottle of rum - a history of the New World in ten cocktails. Crown Publishers. p. 285. ISBN 9781400051670.
Clarke, Frank G. (2002). The History of Australia. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31498-5.
Cooper, Rosalind (1982). Spirits & Liqueurs. HPBooks. ISBN 0-89586-194-1.
Foley, Ray (2006). Bartending for Dummies: A reference for the Rest of Us. Wiley Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-470-05056-X.
Pack, James (1982). Nelson's Blood: The Story of Naval Rum. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-944-8.
Rorabaugh, W.J. (1981). The Alcoholic Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195029901.
Tannahill, Reay (1973). Food in History. Stein and Day. ISBN 0-8128-1437-1.
Further reading[edit]
Williams, Ian (2005). Rum: A Social and Sociable History of the Real Spirit of 1776. Nation Books. (extract)
Broom, Dave (2003). Rum. Abbeville Press.
Arkell, Julie (1999). Classic Rum. Prion Books.
Coulombe, Charles A (2004). Rum: The Epic Story of the Drink that Changed Conquered the World. Citadel Press.
Smith, Frederick (2005). Caribbean Rum: A Social and Economic History. University Press of Florida. (Introduction)
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Rum
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rum.
Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Rum.
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Rum
Wikisource-logo.svg "Rum". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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Corporal Clegg
TNPer
UP WE GOOOO!!!!Syrixia:
Corporal Clegg
TNPer
Corporal Clegg:
Corporal Clegg
TNPer
Corporal Clegg: